1 Paul, Silas and Timothy, To the church of the Thessalonians in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ: Grace and peace to you.
2 We always thank God for all of you, mentioning you in our prayers. 3 We continually remember before our God and Father your work produced by faith, your labor prompted by love, and your endurance inspired by hope in our Lord Jesus Christ.
4 For we know, brothers loved by God, that he has chosen you, 5 because our gospel came to you not simply with words, but also with power, with the Holy Spirit and with deep conviction. You know how we lived among you for your sake. 6 You became imitators of us and of the Lord; in spite of severe suffering, you welcomed the message with the joy given by the Holy Spirit. 7 And so you became a model to all the believers in Macedonia and Achaia. 8 The Lord's message rang out from you not only in Macedonia and Achaia--your faith in God has become known everywhere. Therefore we do not need to say anything about it, 9 for they themselves report what kind of reception you gave us. They tell how you turned to God from idols to serve the living and true God, 10 and to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised from the dead--Jesus, who rescues us from the coming wrath.
Floating on Your Back
1 Thessalonians 1:1-10
Sermon
by King Duncan
Peter Hiett in his book Eternity Now! tells a wonderful story about a little girl named Mary who, against all odds, survived a hurricane. In October 1991, weather fronts over New England combined with the remains of a hurricane coming up the eastern seaboard to form what has become known as the Perfect Storm. A small boat, the Andrea Gail, carrying a father named John and his six‑year‑old daughter named Mary were caught in the storm.
John had not checked the weather report when he and Mary sailed off the Jersey shore. Six miles out, he was shocked at how fast the winds changed. Soon the boat capsized and they were in the water. The life preservers were still tied to the boat while the boat was being swept out to sea.
John realized there was no way he could swim the six miles back to shore while holding his little girl. To save them, he would have to swim alone. “Mary, you can float on your back as long as you want,” he told her. She had practiced floating on her back in the pool at home. “Float on your back, Mary. I’ll swim to shore, and I will be back for you.”
Three hours later the Coast Guard found John. For the next hour and a half as darkness came on, they looked for the little girl amid twenty‑ to thirty‑foot swells. Then, miraculously, the spotlight found her. She had been floating nearly five hours.
The guardsmen later asker her, “Mary, how did you do that?” She said, “Well, my daddy said I could float on my back as long as I wanted to, and that he would come back for me. My daddy always does what he says.” (1) An amazing story! Mary kept floating and kept trusting her daddy regardless of what the waves around her were doing.
Mary had the same kind of faith in her daddy that St. Paul saw in the church at Thessalonica. Today Thessalonica is the second-largest city in Greece and is the capital of Macedonia, the nation’s largest region. But even in Paul’s time it was a prominent and prosperous city. The city lay along a major trade route at the mouth of the Thermaic gulf. It had two synagogues and many Roman temples. Idol worship was strong there. It was not an easy place to plant a church.
However, Thessalonica played at significant role in Paul’s ministry. He and Silas worked hard and did establish a Christian community there. There was a large Jewish presence in Thessalonica, which gave them an opportunity for converts, but also caused them problems with the authorities. It was at Thessalonica that Paul and Silas got in trouble with the Roman authorities. The leaders of the synagogues had this to say about them, “These men . . . have turned the world upside down . . .” because, according to the leaders of the synagogue, they were “saying that there is another king, Jesus” (Acts 17:6-7). This was treason, of course, to say that there was another king besides Caesar.
And yet, the church at Thessalonica became one of Paul’s success stories due to the faithfulness of the converts there. So Paul begins this letter to the church with high praise for the Thessalonians. He says he “always thanks God” for them. He writes that he continually remembers their “work produced by faith,” their “labor prompted by love,” and their “endurance inspired by hope in our Lord Jesus Christ.” That’s high praise for any group of believers. It is something for us to aspire to. In a sea of idolatry, they were floating on their back, serving as an example to others because of “work produced by faith,” “labor prompted by love,” and “endurance inspired by hope in Jesus Christ.” Let’s begin by considering their “work produced by faith.”
Obviously, their faith in Christ was critical. Little Mary was able to keep floating because she knew her daddy would come back for her. In like manner the Thessalonians were strong in their faith that Christ would not forget his own. This is essential in any setting whether we are trying to maintain our faith in the midst of a hostile pagan environment or we are trying to carry on in the midst of a deep personal crisis. After all, we all have our storms to face.
I read recently about another person who literally floated and trusted. He was an older adult. His name was Alex Gaines. Gaines was a noted lawyer and a committed churchman in Atlanta, Georgia. Agnes Norfleet was Associate Pastor of Gaines’ church and visited him when he was in the hospital and was dying. She asked him how he felt about dying. Gaines said that “at 84 years old he felt only gratitude to God for his long life, because he had almost died as a young man.” He told Agnes the story.
During World War II his plane had been shot down over the English Channel. He also floated, though his experience lasted a full day and a night before he was rescued. He had come to know and believe that every day thereafter had been a pure gift.
“How did you survive that long in the water?” Agnes asked. Gaines answered that all he did was recite Psalm 46 over and over again. “I hung on to some scrap of the downed aircraft,” Gaines said, “but it was the Psalm that got me through the night. ‘God is our refuge and strength, a very present help in trouble. Therefore we will not fear though the earth should change, though the mountains shake in the heart of the sea; though its waters roar and foam . . . The Lord of hosts is with us . . .’” (2)
How many times have you heard someone who has come through a time of crisis say, “I couldn’t have made it without my faith.” We are no different from the members of the chuch at Thessalonica. They had their challenges; we have ours. The key to being victorious, regardless of the situation, is to trust Christ.
In one of the Chicken Soup for the Soul books, Dr. James C. Brown tells the story of a little girl named Mary who faced her own perfect storm. As they rolled 5‑year‑old Mary in for an MRI, Dr. Brown tried to imagine what she must be feeling. Little Mary had suffered a stroke. The left half of her body was now paralyzed. Earlier, she’d been hospitalized for a brain tumor. Then, she’d lost her father, her mother and her home.
The staff all wondered how Mary would react to the test. But, she went into the MRI machine without protest. They started the test. Each imaging sequence required her to remain perfectly still for about 5 minutes. That’s hard for anyone, especially a 5‑year‑old.
Dr. Brown says, “About two minutes into the first sequence, we noticed that Mary’s mouth was moving. We even heard her muted voice on the intercom. We stopped the exam and gently reminded her not to talk. She smiled and promised.
“We reset the machine and started over. Once again, we saw her facial movement and faintly heard her voice. What she was saying wasn’t clear. The staff was getting a little impatient. They’d put a busy schedule on hold to perform her emergency MRI.
“We went back in and slid Mary out of the machine. Once again, she looked at us with her crooked smile. She wasn’t upset in the least.
“The technologist, perhaps a bit gruffly, said, ‘Mary, you were talking again. That causes blurry pictures.’ But, Mary’s smile remained as she replied, ‘I wasn’t talking. I was singing. You said no talking.’”
Dr. Brown said, “We looked at each other, feeling a bit silly.”
“What were you singing?” someone asked.
“Jesus Loves Me,” came the soft reply. ‘I always sing Jesus Loves Me when I’m happy.’” (3)
A little child shall lead them . . . Do you have that kind of faith the faith of little Mary? You are very lucky if you do. That kind of faith will bring you through any crisis. St. Paul praised the Thessalonians for “work produced by faith.”
He also praised them for “labor prompted by love.” I’m not sure we talk enough about the labor that love requires. We have corrupted the word love in our culture to the point that it is almost meaningless. We love our soft drinks, our cars, our high-definition television sets. What does that mean, that we love these inanimate objects? Does it mean that we would sacrifice in their behalf; that we would be willing to lay down our lives for them? I know what some of you men are thinking: well, maybe for the high-def television set.
In our culture, love is supposed to come easy, particularly romantic love. Our eyes meet across the room, and we know this will last forever. But real love never comes easy. It requires commitment. It requires hard work.
A young man went into a greeting card store and asked for a very sentimental and special valentine. The saleswoman, after much looking, found a lovely one that said, “To the only girl I have ever loved.”
“That’s wonderful,” said the young man. “I’ll take four.”
I’m not sure that young man understood the nature of love.
In 1937, Wallace, an American medical student, and Maria, a young German woman, became husband and wife. Not long afterwards, they moved to the U.S. It must have been hard for Maria to leave her family and homeland for her husband, but she never complained. She took as her motto the words from I Corinthians 13: “Love bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things.”
When Wallace completed his medical degree and went off to serve with the Army in 1944, Maria gave up her career to stay home with the children. She cheerfully accepted the sacrifices common to the roles of wife and mother.
In the late 1980s, Maria was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease. Now it was Wallace’s turn to adopt her motto. He prayed that he would use this disease as an opportunity to repay his wife for all the sacrifices she made for him. He determined that St. Paul’s words in I Corinthians would guide his attitude and his actions toward his wife. (4)
Friends, that’s love. We all understand that. Love takes loyalty. Love takes labor.
After Albert Einstein’s wife died, his sister, Maja, moved in to assist with the household affairs. For fourteen years she cared for him, allowing his valuable research to continue. In 1950 she suffered a stroke and lapsed into a coma. Thereafter, Einstein spent two hours every afternoon reading aloud to her from Plato. She gave no sign of understanding his words, but he read anyway. If she understood anything by his gesture, she understood this he believed that she was worth his time. (5)
“Work produced by faith” and “labor prompted by love.” No wonder the church at Thessalonica was so special to Paul.
Finally, Paul praised the Thessalonians for their “endurance inspired by hope in Jesus Christ.”
The Thessalonians had staying power. That’s so important in any task. Don’t give up. Keep working, keep loving, keep believing keep floating on your back, as it were and sooner or later things will look up. This kind of endurance is possible, of course, only if you have a reasonable hope that things will get better.
Back in 1998 there was a little film that touched the hearts of millions of people around the world. It was titled Life Is Beautiful. It was a heartbreaking but inspiring film about a young Italian Jewish father named Guido who uses his fertile imagination to help his son Joshua survive their internment in a Nazi concentration camp.
In order to protect Joshua from the horrors all around them, Guido convinces him that it is all a game, that none of it is to be taken seriously. He tells Joshua that the ride in the truck to the concentration camp is actually a surprise for his birthday. He convinces him that the men in uniform that run the camp are not really bad; that is simply how the game is played. He tells Joshua that if you complain about anything even about hunger you lose points. He tells him that quiet boys who hide from the camp guards earn points. He further convinces the boy that, if he keeps all the rules of the game he will win a real, life‑size tank! So, even though there is death and despair all around them, Guido’s son Joshua sees only the beauty of life.
Is Guido’s plan simply an ill-fated act of hopeless futility? Not at all. All along Guido nurtures the hope that Allied troops will come and rescue them before it is too late. He decides to communicate his hope to Joshua rather than his fear. Most of the time, it is an illusion, but it is the healthiest thing he can do for his son. Eventually the Allied troops do rescue the boy. Unfortunately they are not in time to save Guido. Guido is caught, taken away, and is shot by a Nazi guard, but not before making his son laugh one last time by imitating the Nazi guard as if the two of them are marching around the camp together. Joshua manages to survive. Furthermore, he thinks he has won the game when an American tank arrives to liberate the camp, and he is reunited with his mother. (6) Joshua was saved literally by the power of Guido’s hope.
Now think about Paul’s phrase: “endurance inspired by hope in Jesus Christ.” The early church suffered waves of persecution. You know the story. Imprisoned, thrown to the lions, burned in the emperor’s gardens they experienced their own Holocaust. But they endured. Why? Because they hoped in Christ. They trusted that nothing could defeat them because Christ was with them and would never forsake them. And today 2,000 years later we, like Paul, give thanks for them. They preserved the faith for us.
Paul gave thanks for their “work produced by faith,” their “labor prompted by love,” and their “endurance inspired by hope in our Lord Jesus Christ.” That’s a good formula for whatever heartache or hardship life sends our way faith, hope and love.
1. (Brentwood, TN: Integrity Publishers, 2003), p. 70.
2. Agnes Norfleet, in a paper, presented to The Moveable Feast at its 2007 meeting in Tuscaloosa, AL. 7 Mead, 159. Cited by Carla Pratt Keyes, http://www.standrewspresbyterian.org/sermon/022507%20sermon%20‑‑%20Lent%201.pdf.
3. A 5th Portion of Chicken Soup for the Soul. Cited by Pastor Bill Stonebraker,
http://stoney73.home.bresnan.net/Sermons/Isaiah%2012_2‑6%20‑%20Our%20Strength%20and%20Our%20Song.htm.
4. “The Greatest of These,” by Wallace A. Reed, M.D., Guideposts, July 2001, pp. 14-16.
5. Alan Loy McGinnis, The Friendship Factor (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1979), pp. 51‑52.
6. Bruce and Darlene Marie Wilkinson, The Dream Giver For Parents (Sisters, OR: Multnomah, 2004), pp. 86-87.
ChristianGlobe Networks, Inc., Collected Sermons, by King Duncan
The letter opens as Paul, Silas, and Timothy greet the “church of the Thessalonians in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ” with grace and peace. Paul offers thanksgiving for the believers’ labor and endurance motivated by their faith, love, and hope (1:2–3). He then encourages them by reminding them how the gospel came to them with the power of the Spirit and deep conviction (1:4–5). They welcomed the message with joy in spite of severe suffering (1:6). Their faith became known everywhere…
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
1 Paul, Silas and Timothy, To the church of the Thessalonians in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ: Grace and peace to you.
2 We always thank God for all of you, mentioning you in our prayers. 3 We continually remember before our God and Father your work produced by faith, your labor prompted by love, and your endurance inspired by hope in our Lord Jesus Christ.
4 For we know, brothers loved by God, that he has chosen you, 5 because our gospel came to you not simply with words, but also with power, with the Holy Spirit and with deep conviction. You know how we lived among you for your sake. 6 You became imitators of us and of the Lord; in spite of severe suffering, you welcomed the message with the joy given by the Holy Spirit. 7 And so you became a model to all the believers in Macedonia and Achaia. 8 The Lord's message rang out from you not only in Macedonia and Achaia--your faith in God has become known everywhere. Therefore we do not need to say anything about it, 9 for they themselves report what kind of reception you gave us. They tell how you turned to God from idols to serve the living and true God, 10 and to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised from the dead--Jesus, who rescues us from the coming wrath.
1:1 · Epistolary Greeting: In the ancient world, people believed that letters brought one into the presence of an absent person. Seneca (Moral Epistles 75.1) said, “I never receive a letter from you without being forthwith in your presence.” First Thessalonians and other apostolic letters fill the gap left by the separation of the founders from the church (2:17–18; 3:6, 10–11). Greek letters began with the name of the author, followed by a greeting and a prayer or thanksgiving. Although the form of 1Thessalonians is similar to that of ancient letters, it is substantially longer, as were Cicero’s letter-essays. Letters were commonly read aloud when received (1Thess. 5:27).
The authors are “Paul, Silas and Timothy,” the founders of the church, whom Paul later identifies as “apostles”(2:6). The recipients of the letter were “the church of the Thessalonians.” An ekklēsia (“church”) was the assembly of free citizens in a Greek city (see Acts 19:32, 39, 41), although the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament, also used it to translate Hebrew qahal, the assembly of the people of God (cf. Acts 7:38). To distinguish this ekklēsia from all the others in Greek cities, Paul clarifies that this one finds its source and identity “in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.” The Father and Son are regarded as being on the same level, evidence of Paul’s high Christology. The opening verse defines the Christians’ identity in relation to God and each other.
Paul Christianizes the common greeting in Greek letters (chairein) by changing it to “grace” (charis), which summarizes the saving work of God through Jesus Christ (Rom. 3:24; 5:15; Eph. 2:8; 2Thess. 2:16). To “grace” he adds “peace,” a common greeting among the Jews. This “peace” is not an emotional disposition but describes the relational status of a person or people reconciled with God (Rom. 5:1). The combined greeting is more than a formality; it is a blessing that embraces the totality of the divine benefits the authors desire for these believers.
1:2–10 · Opening Thanksgiving: The Coming of the Gospel and Its Reception Ancient letters sometimes included a thanksgiving after the opening greeting. Giving thanks to one’s benefactors, whether human or divine, was a social obligation that the apostles observed. This thanksgiving anticipates the letter’s major topics, such as the coming of the gospel to Thessalonica (1:5a, 9), the character of the missionaries (1:5b), the conversion of the Thessalonians (1:6, 9–10), the results of their conversion (1:3, 7–8), the sufferings that they endured (1:6), the mission of the church (1:8), and the eschatological hope (1:10).
1:2–3 · Faith, love, and hope: The apostles’ thanksgivings to God for the church (1:2) are frequent (“always”) and inclusive (“for all of you”). The context of these thank offerings was likely their corporate prayer times (“mention you in our prayers”). They also pray for the Thessalonians “continually” (see 5:17, where the same adverb appears). Paul commonly uses this adverb to describe the life of prayer (1Thess. 5:17; Rom. 1:9; 2 Tim. 1:3) or thanksgiving (1 Thess. 2:13). “Continually” thus suggests their persistence in prayer for the Thessalonians (see Luke 18:1).
The motivation for their thanks is the Christian virtues that the Thessalonians exhibited (1:3). The apostles bring to mind and mention before God (“We remember”) the fundamental Christian virtues of “faith,” “love,” and “hope,” which the believers have demonstrated. The authors’ prayers are made in the presence of God: “before our God and Father” (1Thess. 3:9–10). Although these words often speak of coming before God and Christ in the final consummation of all things (2Cor. 5:10; 1Thess. 2:19; 3:13), here that hope is a present reality in the prayers of the apostles. In the Greek, these words appear at the end of 1:3, which may imply that the Thessalonians lived out the virtues of faith, love, and hope “before our God and Father” (NKJV, NASB). However, the thought here is that their prayers are made before God, as in 3:9–10.
This trilogy of virtues characterizes true Christianity (1Thess. 5:8; Rom. 5:1–5; 1Cor. 13:13; Gal. 5:5–6; Col. 1:4–5; 1Pet. 1:21–22; Heb. 10:22–24). Timothy has brought news to Paul of the church’s “faith and love” (1 Thess. 3:6) and their perseverance (3:8), the fruit of “hope” (1:3). Paul and the others also remember the Thessalonians’ “work produced by faith” (1:3; cf. Eph. 2:8–10; Gal. 5:6; 2Thess. 1:11). Faith produces action, though the type of “work” is not specified. The word could indicate manual (1 Thess. 2:9; 4:11; 2Thess. 3:8, 10) or ministerial labor (1Thess. 5:12–13; Rom. 15:23). But here Paul likely refers to their “good works” (2Thess. 1:11; 2Cor. 9:8; Eph. 2:10). Among the Jewish people, acts of charity, visitation of the sick, hospitality toward strangers, and helping those who had been forsaken were considered to be good works. The Greek idea of “good works” embraced doing good to others without distinction, whoever the others might be (see 1Thess. 3:12). It included any acts and donations that benefited a community.
The apostles also recalled the Thessalonians’ “labor prompted by love.” The objects of this love were the other members of the congregation (2Thess. 1:3), their leadership (1Thess. 5:13), other Christians in Macedonia (4:9–10), and even those outside the community (3:12). “Labor” implies hard and exhausting work. Love seeks the welfare of others and labors hard for their benefit. Paul and his associates also recall the Thessalonians’ “endurance inspired by hope in our Lord Jesus Christ.” Endurance, one of the most highly valued virtues in the church, is the ability to stand firm and persevere in the face of suffering or temptation (Luke 21:19; Rom. 5:3–4; 2Cor. 1:6; 6:4; Col. 1:11; 2Thess. 1:4; 1Tim. 6:11; Titus 2:2; Heb. 12:1; James 1:3–4; Rev. 2:2–3). In the face of persecution and the temptation to abandon the faith (1Thess. 1:6; 2:14; 3:1–5; cf. 2Tim. 2:11–12), the Thessalonians stood firm (3:8). The reason for this was their “hope in our Lord Jesus Christ,” that is, hope in the coming of the Lord (1 Thess. 1:10; 2:19; 3:13; 4:16; 5:23; 2Thess. 1:7–10; 2:1; and see 1Thess. 5:8). Hope was not a virtue that marked the Gentile world (1Thess. 4:13; Eph. 2:12). According to Greek philosophy, the only ones who did not err in their hope were the gods, whereas people’s hopes were considered uncertain. The Christian perspective puts hope on a certain foundation since the object is sure: “our Lord Jesus Christ” in his coming.
1:4–10 · The coming of the gospel and its reception: Paul now moves to the deepest motivation for their thanksgiving, the election of the believers: “For we know, brothers and sisters loved by God, that he has chosen you” (1:4). The Greek grammar connects this verse with the preceding thoughts, so there should be no paragraph break here (see NRSV, ESV). The source of the believers’ election is the love of God (“loved by God”; cf. Deut. 4:37; 7:7–8; 10:15; Ps. 47:4; 78:68; Isa. 42:1; Matt. 12:18; Rom. 11:28; Eph. 1:4; Col. 3:12). Whereas the placement of political or military leaders in Paul’s time had to do with the merit or character of those chosen, divine election finds its center in the one who chooses (Rom. 5:6–8). The implied result of election is the formation of the Christian community, the brothers and sisters “loved by God” (cf. 2Thess. 2:13).
Having expressed confidence that the Thessalonians are elect, Paul underscores the first evidence of their election: “because our gospel came to you not simply with words but also with power, with the Holy Spirit and deep conviction” (1:5a). “Gospel” was a familiar term in the Roman world, often appearing in association with the imperial (ruler) cult. Announcements about significant moments in the emperor’s life as well as his decrees and discourse were published far and wide as his “gospel.” The apostolic announcement was about the true ruler, Jesus Christ, whose authority supersedes that of the emperor (cf. Mark 1:1). Also, in Israel the “gospel” was the culmination of the hopes of the people of God, which centered on God’s victory and sovereignty (Isa. 52:7; 61:1). The “gospel” has to do with the proclamation of those events that inaugurate this new era.
In 1Corinthians 2:1–5 Paul contrasts persuasion via rhetorical methodology with the proclamation of the gospel. In 1 Thessalonians 1:5, however, Paul simply states that the message of the gospel (the “words” as in 1:6, 8; 2:13; 2Thess. 3:1) came to the Thessalonians accompanied by divine power (cf. Rom. 15:18–19; 1Cor. 1:6–7; 2Cor. 6:7; 12:12; Heb. 2:3–4; and note the result in 1Thess. 2:13). “Power” refers to the miracles God performed (Mark 6:5; Acts 2:22; 1Cor. 2:4; 2Cor. 12:12; Heb. 2:4). The Holy Spirit worked through the preaching and convicted the hearers of the truth of the message (Luke 24:46–49; Acts 1:8; 5:32; 1Cor. 2:2–4; 1Pet. 1:12). The “deep conviction” could refer to the apostles’ certainty about the message but likely points to the fullness or totality of God’s working. The proclamation was also powerful in that the gospel message was reinforced by the conduct of the messengers: “You know how we lived among you for your sake” (1:5b; see 1Thess. 2:1–12). There was complete harmony between the character of the apostles and the message they preached.
The way the Thessalonians received the gospel was additional evidence of their election (1:6–10): “You became imitators of us and of the Lord, for you welcomed the message in the midst of severe suffering with the joy given by the Holy Spirit” (1:6). Imitation is not a well-recognized form of instruction today in the West, but the ancients appreciated the value of imitating people who served as models, as do people in other cultures today. The New Testament often calls believers to imitate Christian leadership (1Cor. 4:16; 11:1; Gal. 4:12; Phil. 3:17; 4:9; 2Thess. 3:7, 9; 1Tim. 4:12; Titus 2:7; 1Pet. 5:3), other members of the community (Phil. 3:17; Heb. 6:12; 13:7), and God the Father and Jesus Christ (Eph. 5:1; 1Cor. 11:1). In 1:6 the focus is on how the Thessalonians followed the example of the apostles and the Lord in their intense or “severe” sufferings. Paul well understood that suffering was an element of the Christian life (see Acts 9:15–16; 14:21–22; Rom. 8:17; 2Cor. 1:5; Phil. 3:10; 1Pet. 2:21). The miracle of the Thessalonians’ conversion was that they received the message of Christ crucified amid the great hostility shown toward this new faith that had recently arrived in Thessalonica.
They also had “joy given by the Holy Spirit” in the midst of this suffering. Joy in suffering was a theme in Jewish literature that filtered into the church through Jesus’s teaching (Matt. 5:11–12; Luke 6:22–23; 21:28). The first Christians, like many believers today, suffered intensely but found joy in sharing in the sufferings and the shame of Christ (Acts 5:41; Rom. 12:12; 2Cor. 4:8–10; 7:4; Phil. 2:17; 1Pet. 1:6; 4:13–14). Their source of this joy was the Holy Spirit (cf. Gal. 5:22; Rom. 14:17; 1Pet. 4:13–14). The ones who imitated Christ’s and the apostles’ model of suffering in turn became a model for other churches (1:7). The influence and ministry of this church, located in the city known as “The Mother of Macedonia,” spread far and wide (1:8; 4:10). Indeed, the church spread the gospel throughout the province of Macedonia and beyond (1:8). The Lord’s message or word is the gospel itself (2Thess. 3:1), which “rang out,” a word elsewhere used to describe a loud noise like a clap of thunder, the cry of a multitude, the sound of the trumpet, or a rumor that runs everywhere. So great were their efforts to spread the gospel that Paul remarks, “Therefore we do not need to say anything about it.” The final words (“about it”) do not appear in the Greek text. The point is simply that Paul and his companions did not need to proclaim the gospel (the verb translated “say” appears again in 2:2, 4, 16) in certain parts due to the Thessalonians’ efforts.
Paul and his associates had received reports from others who had encountered the Thessalonian believers (1:9). The Greek for “reception,” which is the same word translated “visit” in 2:1, is best understood as an “entry.” The entry of an orator into an ancient city was an important event. Aristides spoke of his entry into Smyrna: “Before I even entered the city, there were people coming to meet me because they had heard about me, the most distinguished of the young men were giving themselves to me, and there was already a definite plan for a lecture” (Oration 51.29). In the following chapter (1Thess. 2:1–12) Paul describes the character of his entry into the city. The effects of the apostles’ entry were impressive, evidenced by the Thessalonians’ conversion (1:9; Acts 14:11–18; 17:22–31; 19:23–41). The early church condemned idolatry, as people were called to turn to the only “living and true God” in contrast with the dead and false idols (Rom. 1:22–25; 1Cor. 5:11; 6:9; 10:14–22; Gal. 5:20–21; Eph. 5:5; Col. 3:5; 1John 5:21; Rev. 21:8; 22:15). Conversion to God not only entailed abandoning practices associated with idolatry (1Pet. 4:3) but also included worship and moral service to God (Rom. 6:6, 16–19).
Turning to God included embracing the Christian expectation regarding the end, “to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised from the dead” (1:10). “To wait” was used in the Greek translation of the Old Testament to signify the hope God’s people held for divine salvation and mercy (Isa. 59:11; see also Ps. 25:3; 27:14). The object of this waiting is Jesus, the one risen and slated to return (1Thess. 4:13–18). Among the Greeks there was no belief in a resurrection. Pliny the Elder even says there are some things the gods cannot do, such as raise the dead (Natural History 2.5.27). But God did indeed raise Christ from the dead, and the risen one will return as the one “who rescues us from the coming wrath” (1Thess. 1:10; 5:9). The wrath of God is the execution of his judgment against sin (Matt. 3:7; Luke 3:7; Rom. 2:5; Eph. 5:6; Col. 3:6; Rev. 6:16–17; 11:18; 16:19; 19:15), not an outburst of emotion. It is an eschatological event directed toward those who do not know or obey God (2Thess. 1:6–10; Rom. 1:18). Christ’s death and resurrection deliver the believer from this wrath (cf. Rom. 5:9).
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Address and Greeting
1:1 Paul frequently associates himself with others in the prescripts of his letters (cf. 1 Cor. 1:1; 2 Cor. 1:1; Gal. 1:1f.; Phil. 1:1; Col. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1; Philem. 1). In most cases it must be doubted that the others made any material contribution to the letters, being named simply out of courtesy, and so in this case. The letter bears all the hallmarks of a Pauline epistle (see Introduction on The Authenticity of 1 Thessalonians and disc. on 3:1), such that it is difficult to believe that Silas and Timothy had any hand in what was written apart from giving Paul an up-to-date report on the situation in Thessalonica and some counsel as to what should be said to the church of the Thessalonians. Silas and Timothy had, of course, shared with Paul in the establishment of that church, and Timothy had only recently returned (as we suppose) from revisiting the scene of their former labors. It is understandable, therefore, that they should be named in the address.
The address follows the normal pattern of letters of that time, naming the writer(s) first, then the recipient(s), and finally giving a word of greeting. Sometimes this structure became for Paul the vehicle of an extended theological statement, as in Romans 1:1–7. Here it remains relatively simple. Because the letter is written to the church (no matter that it was addressed in the first instance to a particular group of Christians at a particular time), we may read it as Paul’s letter (and God’s word) to us (see Introduction on The Letters Today).
The greeting of peace was, and still is, the usual greeting among Jews. Properly, it signified far more than peace does with us. Our concept of peace is largely negative: the absence of war; theirs signified well-being in the widest sense, and here, in the spiritual sense in particular (cf. 5:23; 2 Thess. 1:2; 3:16). The usual Greek greeting was “Rejoice” and the similarity of that word (chairō) with grace (charis) has led some to think that Paul was making a play on the two words. But this could equally as well be a variant of the greeting, “Mercy and peace,” that was current in some Jewish circles (cf. 2 Bar. 78:2). At all events, we are carried by the greeting to the heart of the Christian gospel, for we have been saved by the grace of God (“the extravagant goodness” of God, cf. 1 Thess. 5:28; 2 Thess. 1:2, 12; 2:16; 3:18) that we might have peace with God. One wonders (although this is the first evidence of it) whether the greeting, Grace and peace, had become a liturgical formula (see disc. on 5:28 for the association of grace with the Lord Jesus Christ, and cf. 2 Thess. 1:2).
Elsewhere Paul adds to this greeting the phrase, “from God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ” (cf. Rom. 1:7; 1 Cor. 1:3; 2 Cor. 1:2; Gal. 1:3; Eph. 1:2; Phil. 1:2; 2 Thess. 1:2; 1 Tim. 1:2; 2 Tim. 1:2; Titus 1:4; Philem. 3) or simply, “from God our Father” (Col. 1:2). Thus we might ask whether we should add the phrase in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ to the greeting. The Greek would allow it, and it would thereby indicate the place (en, “in”) in which grace and peace are to be found rather than the source (apo, as in the formulae above) from which they come. But NIV adopts the consensus view that the phrase belongs rather with the church of the Thessalonians, expressing the idea that the church was at rest in God. In the world it had no rest. It was a persecuted church. However, the promise was that no one could snatch followers of Christ out of the Father’s hand, and they rested secure in that (cf. John 10:29 and see disc. and note on 2 Thess. 1:4 for the church as God’s possession). But notice, to be in God is also to be in … the Lord Jesus Christ. The one preposition (in the Greek) governs both persons, thus drawing the Father and Jesus together whom, by implication, we know either together or not at all (cf. 3:11; John 10:28–30). The fact that the Father and the Son are thus linked in this the earliest of Paul’s letters implies that it was already the practice (stemming from the first disciples’ experience of Jesus) to afford the Son divine status (see further disc. on 3:11). As Morris observes, “It is not easy to see how any created being, anyone less than God, could be linked with God the Father in such a way. How can the Thessalonian church be ‘in’ the Lord Jesus Christ if he is no more than a first century Jew?” (Morris, Themes, p. 31).
The description of God as Father adds the dimension of love to the thought of God’s care for the church, while the title Lord bears further witness to Paul’s estimate of Jesus. The use of this title comes out of the early church’s belief in the resurrection of Jesus, which, more than anything else, convinced them that God had made him both Lord and Christ (Acts 2:36).
Additional Notes
1:1 In God … and the Lord Jesus Christ: Not only is this phrase with the preposition in (en) unusual in a greeting, as noted above, but insofar as it speaks of the church as being “in God,” it is unusual in any Pauline context. He might speak of boasting “in God” (Rom. 2:17; 5:11) or even of being hidden “in God” (Eph. 3:9; Col. 3:3), but he never speaks of the church or an individual being “in God” as he speaks of their being “in Christ.” Acts 17:28 is no exception. That text refers to the life we have in him by virtue of creation, not of redemption; and in any case, the line is not Paul’s but probably from Epimenides of Crete. Best takes the preposition as instrumental, “the Christian community brought into being by God.”
There are a number of references in the OT to God as Father (e.g., Exod. 4:22; Deut. 32:6; Hos. 1:10; 11:1), but in most cases these describe the relationship between God and his people as a whole, or between God and the king. Evidence that individuals thought of God as their Father is sparse. The same can be said of intertestamental Judaism, and in the whole of the Qumran literature there is just one passage where the epithet, Father, is applied to God (1QH 9.35f.). Judaism of the first century A.D. and later did call God by this name but not often, and generally with stress on the idea of obedience to the Father. Few thought of God as the Father of the individual. “There is no instance,” for example, “of the use of Abba (Father) as an address to God in all the extensive prayer literature of Judaism, whether in liturgical or in private prayers” (J. Jeremias, New Testament Theology [New York: Scribners, 1971], p. 65). If anything, first-century Judaism tended increasingly to think of God as remote from the individual, to which the teaching of Jesus provides a unique and radical corrective. The scribes put God in the seventh heaven; Jesus taught that he is near and cares for each of us. This teaching is reflected, for example, in the prayers of these two letters (1 Thess. 3:11–13; 2 Thess. 2:16f.; 3:5), where God is portrayed as “not remote and uncaring. He is deeply concerned about his people. He is active in bringing about their growth in Christian qualities, and his concern and his activity will persist to the end” (Morris, Themes, p. 13).
The Lord Jesus Christ (cf. 1:3; 2:15, 19; 3:11, 13; 4:1, 2; 5:9, 23, 28; 2 Thess. 1:1, 2, 7, 8, 12; 2:1, 8, 14, 16; 3:6, 12, 18). Lord (kyrios) is not a name but a title. It is used in a variety of ways but, with reference to ordinary people, most commonly as a polite form of address, much like our “sir” (e.g., John 12:21). More importantly, however, it forms part of the religious vocabulary of the day. Pagan gods receive the title “lord,” and sometimes, in that connection, it is applied to the Roman emperors to express their divinity. Paul would have been aware of this and mindful that in using the title of Jesus he was putting Jesus in the highest place in pagan terms. But, without question, the immediate background to his use (in common with that of the church generally) is the LXX, where “Lord” frequently renders the Hebrew Yahweh, the name of God. The application of the title to Jesus stems from his resurrection whereby he “was declared … to be Son of God” (Rom. 1:4). Paul employs this title ambiguously at times; whether he means God the Father or God the Son is not clear. In most cases, however, the reference appears to be to the Son. “There is but one God, the Father … and there is but one Lord, Jesus Christ” (1 Cor. 8:6; for Father, see disc. on 1:8; 2 Thess. 3:1, 3, 4, 5; for Son see disc. on 1 Thess. 1:10; 3:8, 12; 4:6; 4:15–17; 5:2, 12, 27; 2 Thess. 1:9; 2:2, 13; 3:16).
Similarly Christ is a title, but, due in large measure to Paul, it soon came to used as a proper name. “Christ” comes directly from the Greek word Christos, which translates the Hebrew mešiaḥ (messiah), meaning “anointed one.” In the OT, various people are anointed with oil and thereby set apart for a particular office in the service of God, such as priests (Lev. 4:3; 6:22) and kings and perhaps prophets (1 Kings 19:16). The kings especially are called “the Lord’s anointed” (e.g., 1 Sam. 24:10; 2 Sam. 19:21; 23:1; Ps. 2:2; Lam. 4:20). In some instances a person or persons might be called mešiaḥ who had not been literally anointed but who, nevertheless, served God’s purpose in some way (the patriarchs, Ps. 105:15; Cyrus the Persian, Isa. 45:1; the nation Israel, Hab. 3:13). Thus there were many “anointed ones,” but over the years the expectation grew that in due course God would send not just an anointed one, but the anointed one who would inaugurate God’s kingdom in the final and fullest sense (see note on 2:12). This expectation can be traced in the OT, although the title Messiah is hardly, if at all, applied there to the coming one. In that connection, the title belongs to a later period, including the period of the NT. At this time, according to A. Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1890), vol. 2, pp. 710–41, the rabbis understood 456 OT passages to refer to the Messiah. Thus, when Paul called Jesus by this title, he was using a term that would arouse significant associations in the minds of all those in touch with rabbinic teaching. He uses the title ten times in each of the Thessalonian letters (1 Thess. 1:1, 3; 2:6, 14; 3:2; 4:16; 5:9, 18, 23, 28; 2 Thess. 1:1, 2, 12; 2:1, 14, 16; 3:5, 6, 12, 18).
Thanksgiving for the Thessalonians’ Faith
Paul’s letters typically follow the address and greeting with Paul’s thanksgiving for his readers. It is the celebration of their new life in the context of which he can deal with their mistakes and misunderstandings. This letter follows that pattern (the only exception is Galatians). Indeed, here the note of thanksgiving sounds well beyond this section, being heard again in 2:13–16, 3:9–10, and in 3:11–13, where its sound mingles with that of prayer (Paul Schubert, Form and Function of the Pauline Thanksgiving [Berlin: Töpelmann, 1939], pp. 17–27, suggests, indeed, that the thanksgiving begun in 1:2 extends for the next forty-three verses!). In the passage before us, it is also mingled with prayer, or at least a report of prayer for the Thessalonians (vv. 2b–3). The grounds of the thanksgiving in vv. 4–10 provide an interesting supplement to the story of the church’s foundation in Acts 17.
1:2–3 We … thank God. The plural We reflects the association of Silas and Timothy with Paul in the address and suggests that they have some part in what is written, if only in providing Paul with more recent news about the Thessalonians. This should be compared, for example, with 1 Corinthians and Philippians, where Paul links other names to his own in the address but follows with the singular, “I thank God.” The addition of the words always (adialeiptōs, cf. 2:13; 5:17) and for all of you (despite the fact that there were some problem people in the church) is some measure of Paul’s love for the Thessalonians. Out of this love his thanksgiving flows. The phrase for all of you could be read with either we … thank God, as NIV, or mentioning … in our prayers.
In the Greek, three participial phrases follow, qualifying Paul’s opening statement. Thus we learn that the thanksgiving is made in the context of prayer, literally, by “making a remembrance of you (but in the sense of mentioning, cf. Rom. 1:9; Eph. 1:16; Philem. 4) “in the time of our prayers” (epi tōn proseuchōn hēmōn). That is, whenever they pray they include thanksgiving for the Thessalonian church.
The second participial phrase expresses the grounds of the thanksgiving in their remembering three things in particular about the Thessalonians. These three things correspond with the familiar triad of graces occurring elsewhere in Paul and other NT writers (cf. 5:8; Rom. 5:1–5; 1 Cor. 13:13; Gal. 5:5; Col. 1:4f.; Heb. 10:22–24; 1 Pet. 1:21f.).
1. Their work produced by faith (the three nouns, work, labor, endurance, ergon, kopos, hypomonēs, of this passage recur in Rev. 2:2). This short phrase sums up what must be our response to the gospel. We are saved by grace through faith—all that is necessary has been done for us by grace (the work of God in Christ), and we take hold of it through faith (our trust in Christ as the Savior; for “faith,” see further disc. on 3:2, and for “salvation,” see disc. on 5:8). Thus we are not saved by works—our works—but we are saved for works, specifically the “good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do” (Eph. 2:8–10). These are expressed in his commands and summed up in the two great commands to love God and neighbor (Mark 12:29–31; Rom. 13:8–10). Paul could not conceive of a merely intellectual religion. Faith must be demonstrated in practice; evidently, this was happening in the Thessalonian church.
2. Their labor prompted by love. This phrase makes the same point as the other: namely, that the Thessalonians are making their Christian profession visible. The practice of their belief is evident for all to see. But, whereas the work produced by faith focuses on the word faith, i.e., on the means of entering into relationship with God, this phrase draws attention to the nature of that relationship with God. It is one of love. “We love because he first loved us.” But “he has given us this command: Whoever loves God must also love his brother” (1 John 4:19–21)—another form of the two great commands, obedience to which is the labor prompted by love. Labor (kopos, cf. 2:9; 3:5; 2 Thess. 3:8 and 1 Thess. 5:12 for the corresponding verb) is a stronger word than ergon, work, but no difference is intended here. Obedience is always hard work!
3. The missionaries’ third recollection of the Thessalonian church concerns their endurance inspired by hope in our Lord Jesus Christ. Endurance (hypomonē, cf. 2 Thess. 1:4; 3:5) characterizes those who are unswerving in purpose. It is not a passive virtue but an active one, as its association with labor and work suggests. The Thessalonians’ endurance was rooted in both the past and present. It sprang from their consciousness of the grace of God in Christ and of the love of God which now enfolded them (see disc. on 1:4). But further, it is sustained by what still lay ahead. The NT understands hope not merely to mean wishful thinking but to possess a certainty about the future based on the promises of God (cf. 2:19; 4:13; 5:8; 2 Thess. 2:16). Specifically the hope is in our Lord Jesus Christ. The Greek reads literally, “the hope of,” but the genitive is objective. Jesus—and more precisely his return—is the content of their hope. In line with this, Paul speaks of “the hope of salvation” in 5:8, and in 5:9 of the Thessalonians as waiting still “to receive salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ” (cf. Rom. 5:2; Col. 1:27). There is no question that they are saved, but Paul generally reserves that term for the future, though he sometimes uses it of the present state of believers (cf. Rom. 8:24; 1 Cor. 1:18; 15:2; 2 Cor. 2:15; Eph. 2:5, 8; 2 Tim. 1:9; Titus 3:5). But some of the benefits of salvation such as “the redemption of (their) bodies” (Rom. 8:23) will come only with the return of Jesus. Thus we are introduced to what will become the single most important theme of these letters (for Lord and Christ, see note on 1:1).
NIV links the phrase, before our God and Father with Paul’s “remembering,” but in the Greek text the phrase comes at the end of the verse and may be better linked with what is remembered of the Thessalonian church. This especially concerns their endurance inspired by hope in our Lord Jesus Christ, since it follows immediately on that phrase. In support of this view, we note that the same phrase, before our God and Father (identical in the Gk. though not in NIV) is closely associated in 3:13, as it would be here, with the thought of Christ’s return. It suggests that all that they did and endured was done with an awareness of God and that he was in control.
1:4 Where NIV begins a new paragraph, the Greek continues with the sentence begun in verse 2. We have now the third participial phrase qualifying the statement, “we … thank God,” and expressing further the grounds of the thanksgiving. The importance that Paul gives to thanksgiving (cf. Rom. 1:8, “First, I thank … God”) lies in his recognition that, whatever part he or others might play, in the final analysis it is God who opens hearts (cf. Acts 16:14)—the new life of the Thessalonian Christians is due to God. And this is the point that Paul makes in this verse. We know … that he has chosen you (lit. “knowing your choice, election”; eklogē, in the NT always of the divine choice, cf. Rom. 9:11; 11:5, 7, 28; also klēsis, “calling,” 2 Thess. 1:11). Election in the OT concerns the nation (cf. Deut. 4:37; 1 Kings 3:8; Isa. 41:8f.; 43:10; 44:1f.; 45:4; 49:7), although it begins with an individual, Abraham (Neh. 9:7). In the NT it concerns the individual, and, in a sense, the individual, Christ, so that election becomes ours only when we are “in Christ” (cf., e.g., Eph. 1:3–14). Thus the element of human choice enters into the process. If we choose to be in Christ, we have been chosen by God. There is nothing arbitrary, therefore, about election. Our choice makes us his elect. At the same time it makes us “somebodies” who in the eyes of the world may be “nobodies.” Election gives us a value that otherwise we would not have, for God chose us, not because of what we were, but despite our being sinners and simply because he is the kind of God he is (cf. 1 John 4:8, 16; also Rom. 5:8 and 1 John 4:10). Our election is entirely an expression of God’s love. Notice then, how Paul links these two ideas in this passage by calling the chosen those loved by God (cf. Deut. 33:12; Neh. 13:26; Sir. 45:1; Bar. 3:36; m. ‘Abot 6.1). The perfect tense of the participle expresses the thought that the love, once shown to us in Christ, continues to enfold us. (See 2 Thess. 2:13 and probably Jude 1 for a similar use of ēgapēmenoi.) The adjective agapētos more often expresses this idea, but the participle may put greater emphasis on God’s continuing love. Brothers is one of the earliest names used by Christians of themselves and certainly the most frequent in the NT. The roots of the Christian use lay in the Jewish practice of calling one another “brother” (cf. Acts 2:37; 7:2; 13:15; 28:17), but for Christians it came to have a deeper meaning (cf. Matt. 23:8; Mark 3:34). They were those whose new birth had made them members of the one heavenly family and children of the one heavenly Father. The name is a reminder that, despite our differences, we are one, and that there is “one God and Father of all” (Eph. 4:6; cf. 1 Thess. 1:1). The many occurrences of the name in these letters (twenty-one times), more than might have been expected even from its frequent use elsewhere, may be taken as a measure of Paul’s affection for the Thessalonians. Needless to say, brothers includes both men and women.
1:5 The conjunction introducing this verse in the Greek, hoti, is ambiguous. It could be taken as “that,” making verse 5 an amplification of verse 4, as in RV: “knowing your election, how that our gospel came to you.” On this understanding, the emphasis appears to be on their hearing the gospel as evidence of their election. Or it could mean because, as in NIV. We know that he has chosen you, says Paul, because our gospel came to you. On this view (which we accept as the more likely), it is the preaching, not the hearing, that is the evidence and, more particularly, the circ*mstances in which the gospel was preached. For it came, not simply with words, but also with power. No preaching can be effective without the infusion of divine power (touching all concerned—the preacher and the hearer alike), while effective preaching—and this is Paul’s point—demonstrates that God has chosen the hearers. (It is proof, too, that the preachers themselves have been chosen.) The gospel is described as our gospel in the sense that this is what they were to preach (cf. 2 Thess. 2:14; 2 Cor. 4:3; also “my gospel,” Rom. 2:16; 16:25; 2 Tim. 2:8), but it is “the gospel of God” in the sense that it is peculiarly God’s or that it originates from God (2:2, 4, 8, 9; Rom. 1:1; see further disc. on 1:8). In terms of its content, though, it is described as “the gospel of his Son” (3:2; 2 Thess. 1:8; Rom. 1:9; 15:19; 1 Cor. 9:12; 2 Cor. 2:12; 9:13; 10:14; Gal. 1:7; Phil. 1:27; cf. also Rom. 1:1–3, “the gospel of God … regarding his Son”).
The association of power (dynamis) with the gospel is a familiar Pauline theme (see Rom. 1:16; 1 Cor. 1:18, 24). This reference may be to “signs, wonders, and various miracles” that accompanied the preaching (Heb. 2:4)—what Paul refers to elsewhere as “the things that mark an apostle” (2 Cor. 12:12); or Paul may be referring to the changed lives of the Thessalonians. Either way, “the power of the Spirit” was at work (Rom. 15:19). Hence Paul’s reference to the Holy Spirit (written in the Gk. without the definite article, emphasizing, perhaps, his activity; cf. 1:6; Rom. 5:5; 9:1; 15:13, 16, 19; 1 Cor. 12:3; 2 Cor. 6:6; note that the Third Person of the Trinity has now been introduced; see disc. on 1:1 and cf. 1:3f.). The Spirit is the source of power; he is also the source of deep conviction, or so the juxtaposition of the three phrases, with power, with Holy Spirit, … with … conviction, would seem to imply. Conviction (plērophoria) carries the sense of being convinced about a matter. Paul probably still has the preachers in mind, their conviction about the gospel being a factor in the Thessalonians’ response. But it is possible (as Bruce and others) to take the word as applying to the hearers and to the Spirit’s role in convincing them of the truth of what they heard and, beyond that perhaps, in giving them a general confidence in God. As Morris notes, this concerns “the God who has a purpose for them and who will surely bring that purpose to pass” (Morris, Themes, p. 90). At all events, the verse ends with the preachers in mind. What they preach, they live. There is a consistency in their ministry such that their lives exemplify their message. The final clause in the Greek is connected to the rest of the verse by the conjunction kathōs, which marks a close correspondence between what precedes and what follows: as our gospel came to you with power, said Paul, so you know how we lived among you for your sake. That final phrase, for your sake (di’ hymas, “because of you”), suggests that lifestyle is a matter of deliberate choice on the part of the preachers (cf. 2:9; 2 Thess. 3:7).
1:6–7 This consistency of practice with belief was evident, no less, in the Thessalonian Christians. These verses are introduced (in the Gk.) by “and” (kai) and furnish the second (as we read the Gk.; see disc. on 1:5) of the two reasons for the statement in verse 4. The writers knew that God had chosen the Thessalonians because, first, he had sent them effective preachers and, second, the preachers had met with a ready response: You became imitators of us and of the Lord (see note on 1:1). Lifestyle is the only evidence that others have of our standing with God. Paul is thus sure that the Thessalonians are in good standing. Paul appears to claim in this verse that he and his colleagues are to be imitated equally with the Lord. Such a claim would be too presumptuous by far. Rather, what he means is that the preachers so mirror Christ in all that they do, that they themselves are models of Christ to others: “You became imitators of us and therefore of the Lord.” Could we say that? We should remember that, to begin with, the Thessalonians had no Christian examples to follow other than Paul and his colleagues (see further disc. on 2 Thess. 3:7). In time, they found other models and became imitators of the churches in Judea (cf. 2:14).
The second half of verse 6 sets out how the Thessalonians became imitators of the missionaries. Like Paul, Silas, and Timothy (and indeed like others before them, cf. Acts 5:41; 16:22–25; Rom. 5:3, 5; 2 Cor. 6:10; Col. 1:24, including Christ himself, cf. Heb. 12:2), in spite of severe suffering, they had welcomed the message with the joy given by the Holy Spirit (for dechomai, “to receive gladly,” “to welcome,” see disc. on 2:13). The NT takes it for granted that Christians will suffer. Indeed, Paul later states that we are destined (by God) for suffering (see disc. on 3:3). Why this should be, we do not know. But we do know that suffering builds character (cf. Rom. 5:3–5; James 1:12; 1 Pet. 1:6f.) and there may be a hint of this in the juxtaposition of suffering and joy. Joy is a distinguishing mark of the Christian, for it has its basis in our relationship with God (and therefore derives from his grace) and is a gift of his Spirit who is at work in us (see further disc. on 5:16). The precise nature of the “severe suffering” of the Thessalonians is not explained—why should it be? Both the writer and the readers knew what was meant. The word thlipsis implies pressure from without, and clearly in this instance, its cause was the pressure of persecution (cf. 3:3, 7; 2 Thess. 1:4, 6; for the verb, thlibomai, 3:4), almost certainly instigated by the Jews who had earlier succeeded in having the missionaries driven from the city (cf. 2:14–16; Acts 17:5–10). But for all that, the Thessalonian Christians were themselves a model of Christ to all the believers in Macedonia, their own province, and Achaia, the neighboring province to the south (modern central and southern Greece).
1:8 By way of further explanation (note the conjunction gar, “because”) Paul remarks that the Thessalonians’ imitation of the missionaries included preaching as well as practice. The Lord’s message rang out from you. This is literally, “the word of the Lord,” a phrase common in the OT and later in Acts, but appearing only here and in 2 Thessalonians 3:1 in the Pauline writings. But Paul enlists other, similar phrases like “the word,” “the word of God,” “the gospel of God.” The word is the gospel, and it is the gospel of which “the Lord” is the author (see disc. on 1:5). As elsewhere in the NT, it is unclear who is meant by the Lord, for the Son (Jesus) no less than the Father is called by this name. In this instance we should probably understand the reference to be to the Father (see note on 1:1). The verb “to ring out” (exēcheō), found only here in the NT, suggests the call of a trumpet and brings to mind Paul’s metaphor of 1 Corinthians 14:8: “If the trumpet does not sound a clear call, who will get ready for battle?” The clarion call of the gospel had sounded from Thessalonica not only in Macedonia and Achaia, but everywhere.
This, at least, is the sense of what Paul says. But in midstream he changes the structure of the sentence. “The Lord’s message” is replaced as the subject by your faith in God (for faith, see disc. on 3:2), and strictly, the latter had become known. “Everywhere” refers only to Jewish-Christian communities, and even then it may be hyperbole (cf. Rom. 1:8; 2 Cor. 2:14; Col. 1:6). It is commonly suggested, however, that Priscilla and Aquila may have heard of the faith of the Thessalonians in Rome before coming to Corinth (Acts 18:2), as Paul would have learned, and “what was known at Rome could be presumed to be known everywhere” (Morris). Certainly at Corinth, Paul and the others had no need to say anything about it. News of their faith (and equally, no doubt, of their “work produced by faith,” etc., 1:3) had gone before them. However, before long, he boasted to the Corinthians about their faith (2 Thess. 1:4) and their work, along with that of all of the Macedonian churches (2 Cor. 8:1–5).
1:9–10 As verse 8 explains verse 7, so verses 9–10 explain verse 8 (notice again the conjunction gar). The subject they is indefinite—anyone at all might have reported what was happening in Thessalonica. This is how the missionaries heard of their own part in the story—what kind of reception you gave us—from the lips of others. The unusual expression literally means, “What kind of entrance we had.” It implies a warm reception and, again, suggests the familiar Pauline metaphor of the open door (cf. Acts 14:27; 1 Cor. 16:9; 2 Cor. 2:12; Col. 4:3). The best part of the story, however, was how they turned to God from idols. There is a striking correspondence between this report and that of Paul’s preaching in Acts 14:15. Together with Acts 17:22–31, these verses give some indication of Paul’s approach to pagans in which the denunciation of idolatry played an important part. We should thus read his description of God as the living and true God against this background. The Greek lacks the definite article; the phrase is literally, “a living and true God” (cf. Acts 14:15; Rom. 9:26; 2 Cor. 3:3; 6:16; 1 Tim. 3:15; 4:10; Heb. 3:12; 9:14; 10:31; 12:22; 1 Pet. 1:23), but there is no danger of misunderstanding. Only one God fits this description. He alone lives, and therefore, he alone is “real,” the sense of alēthinos, true.
In greater detail, what it meant to turn to God receives a twofold definition. First, it means to serve him, with the infinitive expressing the goal of salvation and the tense (present) making the point that our goal in being saved is to serve him always. The word means “to serve as a slave” (douleuō, see also Rom. 12:11; 14:18; 16:18; Eph. 6:7; Phil. 2:22; Col. 3:24; for Paul’s use of the noun of himself, see Rom. 1:1; Gal. 1:10; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1), which highlights that our service is to be absolute—there is no time and there are no circ*mstances in which God is not Lord and we are not his slaves. Second, it is to wait for his Son from heaven. The juxtaposition of these ideas of serving and waiting complement one another. There is no other way in which to wait for God than to serve God here and now (cf. Acts 1:6–8). Again, the present tense of the infinitive expresses the thought of being always on the lookout for Christ’s return. The Thessalonians needed no urging in this; sadly that is less true of Christians today who have largely lost sight of his return and, therefore, lack that incentive for mission and for a more Christlike way of life. The phrase from heaven (ek tōn ouranōn), signifies the Son’s divinity (cf. 4:16 and see disc. on 1:1).
Verse 10 introduces the distinctly Christian element into this report. Others, such as Jews, might have called upon the Thessalonians to turn from idols, but for Christians, the other side of that coin was that they should turn to God through his Son whom he raised from the dead—Jesus, who rescues us from the coming wrath. We notice again a striking correspondence to an account in Acts, this time with Paul’s speech to the Athenians in Acts 17:22–31, which is largely an appeal to them to turn from idols. Also the speech associates the thought of judgment with the risen Jesus. The resurrection attests Jesus to be “the man (whom God) has appointed” for this purpose (Acts 17:31). In Acts, the thought of Jesus’ coming is expressed as a threat; here it is held out as the hope of our salvation. Notice the use of his human name both here and in Acts: thus Paul identifies God’s appointed savior and judge with the man of Nazareth. The present tense who rescues should not be overemphasized. As a title it must be understood as timeless and meaning something like “the Deliverer.” But that rhyomai (cf. 2 Thess. 3:2) was chosen, and not some other word, draws attention to the danger in which sinners stand. They need to be “saved” in the sense of “rescued,” and that is precisely what Jesus does. He rescues us from the coming wrath of the eschatological judgment. The preposition, ek, from, underlines the thoroughness of his achievement. The reality of the wrath “revealed from heaven (i.e., God) against all the godlessness and wickedness of men” (Rom. 1:18; cf. 1 Thess. 2:16; 5:9) is insisted upon in Scripture, and we must not shut our eyes to its grim certainty. As righteous and holy, God responds to human sin, but this should not be thought of as merely “an inevitable process of cause and effect in a moral universe” (C. H. Dodd, The Epistle to the Romans [London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1932], p. 20). It is inevitable, but it is something personal. God will actively drive the sinner from his presence (no matter that his love longs to bring the sinner home) until the sinner turns for rescue to the Savior, on whom God’s wrath has been redirected (cf. Mark 15:34), and in whom God’s love is revealed. Thus, through Christ the Savior and the sinner’s taking hold of what he has done, God’s purpose is fulfilled, for he “did not appoint us to suffer wrath but to receive salvation” (5:9; see also disc. on 2 Thess. 2:11). See further Leon Morris, The Apostolic Preaching of the Cross (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1956); R. V. G. Tasker, “Wrath,” NBD, p. 1341, and H. C. Hahn, “Anger, Wrath,” NIDNTT, vol. 1, pp. 105–13.
Additional Notes
1:5 Our gospel (euangelion): In classical literature this word designated the reward given for good news. Its later transference to the good news itself belongs to the NT and early Christian literature. Even in the LXX its only definite occurrence (2 Sam. 4:10) carries the classical meaning. And yet, the NT usage probably stems from the LXX, not from the noun, but from the verb euangelizomai, and in particular from the use of the verb in Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 60:6; 61:1 concerning the announcement of restoration after the Babylonian exile. The whole context (Isa. 40–66) of these occurrences is reinterpreted in the NT with reference to salvation through Jesus Christ (cf. Luke 4:18 with Isa. 61:1 and Rom. 10:15 with Isa. 52:7).
1:9 You turned to God from idols: It would appear that from the outset, the majority of the Thessalonian Christians were of Gentile origin. The first converts came into the church by way of the synagogue as God-fearers (Acts 17:4; see Introduction on The Founding of the Church). These words serve, then, as an adequate description of their background and may have sprung to Paul’s lips as the language commonly used in preaching to pagans. We have noted above the parallel with Acts 14:15. But is it Pauline language? Bruce points out that this summary of the Thessalonians’ conversion experience lacks some of the distinctives of Paul’s preaching, such as God’s grace and the cross of Christ (cf., e.g., Rom. 3:25; 1 Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1; 6:14). This, together with the rhythmical structure of the passage, may indicate a pre-Pauline formula which has left its mark also on Acts (Bruce). This is not to say, of course, that Paul could not or did not make the language his own. There is ample evidence of his readiness to take up a form of words from the tradition and to incorporate it into his own writing or preaching (e.g., 1 Cor. 11:23–26; 15:3–8).
Understanding the Bible Commentary Series by David J. Williams, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
Achaia is a region along the northern coast of the Peloponnesus, the southern peninsula of Greece. Paul’s letters to the Corinthians were sent to this region (1Cor. 16:15; 2Cor. 1:1). In the NT, the term also has a broader meaning, so that the phrase “Macedonia and Achaia” refers inclusively to all of Greece (Acts 19:21; Rom. 15:26; 1Thess. 1:78).
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human history.
Birth and childhood. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem (2:15). Both the census and the governorship at the time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars. Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general reliability of the Gospel tradition.
On the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Baptism, temptation, and start of ministry. After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke 3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation, quoting Scripture in response.
Matthew and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13; Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Galilean ministry. The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30); the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and suffering.
All the Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke 6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics focus on healings and exorcisms.
During Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority (Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family (3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble beginnings (4:1–32).
The Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful. No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many demons (5:1–13), raised the dead (5:35–42), fed five thousand (6:30–44), and walked on water (6:48–49).
In the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee, where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents (7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesus withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere “crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,” Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’ travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judean ministry. Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27). The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem (Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45; Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Social conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel (Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16; Luke 18:15–17).
Passion week, death, and resurrection. Each of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark 11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
In Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17). Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’ authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions (12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation (12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’ arrest (14:10–11).
At the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29; Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42; Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15; Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18). Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8) and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
The nature of the church is too broad to be exhausted in the meaning of one word. To capture its significance, the NT authors utilize a rich array of metaphorical descriptions. Nevertheless, there are those metaphors that seem to dominate the biblical pictures of the church, five of which call for comment: the people of God, the kingdom of God, the eschatological temple of God, the bride of Christ, and the body of Christ.
The people of God. Essentially, the concept of the people of God can be summed up in the covenantal phrase: “I will be their God, and they will be my people” (see Exod. 6:67; 19:5; Lev. 26:9–14; Jer. 7:23; 30:22; 32:37–40; Ezek. 11:19–20; 36:22–28; Acts 15:14; 2Cor. 6:16; Heb. 8:10–12; Rev. 21:3). Thus, the people of God are those in both the OT and the NT eras who responded to God by faith and whose spiritual origin rests exclusively in God’s grace.
The kingdom of God. Many scholars have maintained that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus inaugurated the kingdom of God, producing the overlapping of the two ages. The kingdom has already dawned but is not yet complete. The first aspect pertains to Jesus’ first coming, and the second aspect relates to his second coming. In other words, the age to come has broken into this age, and now the two exist simultaneously. This background is crucial in ascertaining the relationship between the church and the kingdom of God, because the church also exists in the tension that results from the overlapping of the two ages. Accordingly, one may define the church as the foreshadowing of the kingdom. Two ideas flow from this definition: first, the church is related to the kingdom of God; second, the church is not equal to the kingdom of God.
The church and the kingdom of God are related. Not until after the resurrection of Jesus does the NT speak with regularity about the church. However, there are early signs of the church in the teaching and ministry of Jesus, in both general and specific ways. In general, Jesus anticipated the later official formation of the church in that he gathered to himself the twelve disciples, who constituted the beginnings of eschatological Israel—in effect, the remnant. More specifically, Jesus explicitly referred to the church in two passages: Matt. 16:18–19; 18:17. In the first passage Jesus promised that he would build his church despite satanic opposition, thus assuring the ultimate success of his mission. The notion of the church overcoming the forces of evil coincides with the idea that the kingdom of God will prevail over its enemies and bespeaks the intimate association between the church and the kingdom. The second passage relates to the future organization of the church, not unlike the Jewish synagogue practices of Jesus’ day.
The church and the kingdom of God are not identical. As intimately related as the church and the kingdom of God are, the NT does not equate the two, as is evident in the fact that the early Christians preached the kingdom, not the church (Acts 8:12; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). The NT identifies the church as the people of the kingdom (e.g., Rev. 5:10), not the kingdom itself. Moreover, the church is the instrument of the kingdom. This is especially clear from Matt. 16:18–19, where the preaching of Peter and the church become the keys to opening up the kingdom of God to all who would enter.
The eschatological temple of God. Both the OT and Judaism anticipated the rebuilding of the temple in the future kingdom of God (e.g., Ezek. 40–48; Hag. 2:1–9). Jesus hinted that he was going to build such a structure (Matt. 16:18; Mark 14:58; John 2:19–22). Pentecost witnessed to the beginning of the fulfillment of that dream in that when the Spirit inhabited the church, the eschatological temple was formed (Acts 2:16–36). Other NT writers also perceived that the presence of the Spirit in the Christian community constituted the new temple of God (1Cor. 3:16–17; 2Cor. 6:14–7:1; Eph. 2:19–22; see also Gal. 4:21–31; 1Pet. 2:4–10). However, that the eschatological temple is not yet complete is evident in the preceding passages, especially in their emphasis on the need for the church to grow toward maturity in Christ, which will be fully accomplished only at the parousia (second coming of Christ). In the meantime, Christians, as priests of God, are to perform their sacrificial service to the glory of God (Rom. 12:1–2; Heb. 13:15; 1Pet. 2:4–10).
The bride of Christ. The image of marriage is applied to God and Israel in the OT (see Isa. 54:5–6; 62:5; Hos. 2:7). Similar imagery is applied to Christ and the church in the NT. Christ, the bridegroom, has sacrificially and lovingly chosen the church to be his bride (Eph. 5:25–27). Her responsibility during the betrothal period is to be faithful to him (2Cor. 11:2; Eph. 5:24). At the parousia the official wedding ceremony will take place, and with it the eternal union of Christ and his wife will be actualized (Rev. 19:7–9; 21:1–2).
The body of Christ. The body of Christ as a metaphor for the church is unique to the Pauline literature and constitutes one of the most significant concepts therein (Rom. 12:4–5; 1Cor. 12:12–27; Eph. 4:7–16; Col. 1:18). The primary purpose of the metaphor is to demonstrate the interrelatedness of diversity and unity within the church, especially with reference to spiritual gifts. The body of Christ is the last Adam (1Cor. 15:45), the new humanity of the end time that has appeared in history. However, Paul’s usage of the image, like the metaphor of the new temple, indicates that the church, as the body of Christ, still has a long way to go spiritually. It is not yet complete.
In its more prominent use, “conviction” refers to the experience of becoming aware of one’s guilt before God. Isaiah’s vision of the throne of God provides a dramatic illustration of conviction. He describes the feeling of dread and self-revulsion that he experienced in the presence of God, who is holy: “‘Woe to me!’ I cried. ‘I am ruined! For I am a man of unclean lips, ... and my eyes have seen the King, the Lord Almighty’” (Isa. 6:5). After a miraculous catch of fish, when Peter recognized that Jesus was the Christ, his initial response was similar: “Go away from me, Lord; I am a sinful man!” (Luke 5:8).
The choice or selection of a person or group, especially God’s determination of who will be saved.
On occasion, the language of being “elect” is used as a description of Christ, or perhaps even a title. Isaiah, in one of his Servant Songs, gives a description that is probably best taken as a veiled reference to Christ in his unique relationship with the Father: “Here is my servant, whom I uphold, my chosen [or ‘elect’] one in whom I delight; I will put my Spirit on him, and he will bring justice to the nations” (Isa. 42:1). There is similar usage in the NT, where Jesus is described in 1Pet. 2:6 (using a quotation from Isa. 28:16): “For in Scripture it says: ‘See, I lay a stone in Zion, a chosen [or “elect”] and precious cornerstone, and the one who trusts in him will never be put to shame.’”
Many times the word “elect” is used in Scripture as a synonym for believers. For example, Jesus speaks of the future time when “he will send his angels with a loud trumpet call, and they will gather his elect from the four winds, from one end of the heavens to the other” (Matt. 24:31).
Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.
Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.
In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:2829).
In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).
Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (2:8).
In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the Letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).
In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the Letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).
People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.
Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.
The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.
Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.
Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).
Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.
Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.
Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.
Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).
The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.
The English word “gospel” translates the Greek word euangelion, which is very important in the NT, being used seventy-six times. The word euangelion (eu= “good,” angelion= “announcement”), in its contemporary use in the Hellenistic world, was not the title of a book but rather a declaration of good news. Euangelion was used in the Roman Empire with reference to significant events in the life of the emperor, who was thought of as a savior with divine status. These events included declarations at the time of his birth, his coming of age, and his accession to the throne. The NT usage of the term can also be traced to the OT (e.g., Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1), which looked forward to the coming of the Messiah, who would bring a time of salvation. This good news, which is declared in the NT, is that Jesus has fulfilled God’s promises to Israel, and now the way of salvation is open to all.
Grace is the nucleus, the critical core element, of the redemptive and sanctifying work of the triune God detailed throughout the entire canon of Scripture. The variegated expressions of grace are rooted in the person and work of God, so that his graciousness and favor effectively demonstrated in every aspect of the created realm glorify him as they are shared and enjoyed with one another.
The biblical terminology informing an understanding of grace defines it as a gift or a favorable reaction or disposition toward someone. Grace is generosity, thanks, and good will between humans and from God to humans. Divine expressions of grace are loving, merciful, and effective. The biblical texts provide a context for a more robust understanding of divine gift. The overall redemptive-historical context of grace is the desire of the eternal God to bring glory to himself through a grace-based relationship with his creation. The Creator-Redeemer gives grace, and the recipients of grace give him glory.
The present abode of God and the final dwelling place of the righteous. The ancient Jews distinguished three different heavens. The first heaven was the atmospheric heavens of the clouds and where the birds fly (Gen. 1:20). The second heaven was the celestial heavens of the sun, the moon, and the stars. The third heaven was the present home of God and the angels. Paul builds on this understanding of a third heaven in 2Cor. 12:24, where he describes himself as a man who “was caught up to the third heaven” or “paradise,” where he “heard inexpressible things.” This idea of multiple heavens also shows itself in how the Jews normally spoke of “heavens” in the plural (Gen. 1:1), while most other ancient cultures spoke of “heaven” in the singular.
Although God is present everywhere, God is also present in a special way in “heaven.” During Jesus’ earthly ministry, the Father is sometimes described as speaking in “a voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17). Similarly, Jesus instructs us to address our prayers to “Our Father in heaven” (6:9). Even the specific request in the Lord’s Prayer that “your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven” (6:10) reminds us that heaven is a place already under God’s full jurisdiction, where his will is presently being done completely and perfectly. Jesus also warns of the dangers of despising “one of these little ones,” because “their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven” (18:10). Jesus “came down from heaven” (John 6:51) for his earthly ministry, and after his death and resurrection, he ascended back “into heaven,” from where he “will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11).
Given this strong connection between heaven and God’s presence, there is a natural connection in Scripture between heaven and the ultimate hope of believers. Believers are promised a reward in heaven (“Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven” [Matt. 5:12]), and even now believers can “store up for [themselves] treasures in heaven” (6:20). Even in this present life, “our citizenship is in heaven” (Phil. 3:20), and our hope at death is to “depart and be with Christ, which is better by far” (1:23). Since Christ is currently in heaven, deceased believers are already present with Christ in heaven awaiting his return, when “God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him” (1Thess. 4:14).
Holiness is an attribute of God and of all that is fit for association with him. God alone is intrinsically holy (Rev. 15:4). God the Father is holy (John 17:11), as is the Son (Acts 3:14), while “Holy” is the characteristic designation of God’s Spirit (Ps. 51:11; Matt. 1:18). God’s name is holy (Luke 1:49), as are his arm (Ps. 98:1), ways (Ps. 77:13), and words (Ps. 105:42).
With reference to God himself, holiness may indicate something like his uniqueness, and it is associated with attributes such as his glory (Isa. 6:3), righteousness (Isa. 5:16), and jealousy—that is, his proper concern for his reputation (Josh. 24:19).
God’s dwelling place is in heaven (Ps. 20:6), and “holy” functions in some contexts as a virtual equivalent for heavenly (11:4). God’s throne is holy (47:8), and the angels who surround it are “holy ones” (89:5; cf. Mark 8:38).
A corollary of God’s holiness is that he must be treated as holy (Lev. 22:32)—that is, honored (Lev. 10:3), worshiped (Ps. 96:9), and feared (Isa. 8:13).
While “holy” is sometimes said to mean “set apart,” this does not appear to be its core meaning, though it is an associated notion (Lev. 20:26; Heb. 7:26). Holiness, as applied to people and things, is a relational concept. They are (explicitly or implicitly) holy “to the Lord” (Exod. 28:36), never “from” something.
The symbolic representation of God’s heavenly palace, the tabernacle (Exod. 40:9), and later the temple (1Chron. 29:3), and everything associated with them, are holy and the means whereby God’s people in the OT may symbolically be brought near to God. For God to share his presence with anything or anyone else, these too must be holy (Lev. 11:4445; Heb. 12:14).
The OT system of worship involved the distinction between unclean and clean, and between common and holy, and the means of effecting a transition to a state of cleanness or holiness (Lev. 10:10). People, places, and items may be made holy by a process of consecration or sanctification, whether simply by God’s purifying presence (Exod. 3:5) or by ritual acts (Exod. 19:10; 29:36).
God’s faithful people are described as holy (Exod. 19:6; 1Pet. 2:9). In the OT, this is true of the whole people of God at one level, and of particular individuals at another. Thus, kings (Ps. 16:10), prophets (2Kings 4:9), and in particular priests (Lev. 21:7) are declared to be holy. While the OT witnesses to some tension between the collective holiness of Israel and the particular holiness of its designated leaders (Num. 16:3), the latter were intended to act as models and facilitators of Israel’s holiness.
For Christians, God is the creator of the cosmos and the redeemer of humanity. He has revealed himself in historical acts—namely, in creation, in the history of Israel, and especially in the person and work of Jesus Christ. There is only one God (Deut. 6:4); “there is no other” (Isa. 45:5). Because “God is spirit” (John 4:24), he must reveal himself through various images and metaphors.
The OT refers to God by many names. One of the general terms used for God, ’el (which probably means “ultimate supremacy”), often appears in a compound form with a qualifying word, as in ’el ’elyon (“God Most High”), ’el shadday (“God Almighty”), and ’el ro’i (“the God who sees me” or “God of my seeing”). These descriptive names reveal important attributes of God and usually were derived from the personal experiences of the people of God in real-life settings; thus, they do not describe an abstract concept of God.
The most prominent personal name of God is yahweh (YHWH), which is translated as “the Lord” in most English Bibles. At the burning bush in the wilderness of Horeb, God first revealed to Moses his personal name in sentence form: “I am who I am” (Exod. 3:1315). Though debated, the divine name “YHWH” seems to originate from an abbreviated form of this sentence. Yahweh, who was with Moses and his people at the time of exodus, is the God who was with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. According to Jesus’ testimony, “the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob” is identified as the God “of the living” (Matt. 22:32). Hence, the name “Yahweh” is closely tied to God’s self-revelation as the God of presence and life.
Many of God’s attributes are summarized in Exod. 34:6–7: “The Lord, the Lord, the compassionate and gracious God, slow to anger, abounding in love and faithfulness, maintaining love to thousands, and forgiving wickedness, rebellion and sin. Yet he does not leave the guilty unpunished; he punishes the children and their children for the sin of the parents to the third and fourth generation.”
The Christian God of the Bible is the triune God. God is one but exists in three persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Matt. 28:19). The Son is one with the Father (John 10:30); the Holy Spirit is one with God (2Sam. 23:2–3). All three share the same divine nature; they are all-knowing, holy, glorious, and called “Lord” and “God” (Matt. 11:25; John 1:1; 20:28; Acts 3:22; 5:3–4; 10:36; 1Cor. 8:6; 2Cor. 3:17–18; 2Pet. 1:1). All three share in the same work of creation (Gen. 1:1–3), salvation (1Pet. 1:2), indwelling (John 14:23), and directing the church’s mission (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 16:6–10; 14:27; 13:2–4).
At times simply indicating a wish (2Cor. 11:1), in the Bible the word “hope” most often designates a disposition of soul, the grounds for one’s hope, or the outcome for which one hopes. At its core, biblical hope is hope in God, rooted in God’s covenant faithfulness (Ps. 62:58; Jer. 14:8; 17:13; Rom. 4:18; 5:1–5). Hope trusts God in the present and lives even now on the strength of God’s future accomplishments (Gal. 5:5; Heb. 11:1).
In the NT, hope is closely associated with Christ and his saving work. Christians now live by hope in Christ (Eph. 1:12; 1Pet. 1:3; 3:15); indeed, he is “Christ Jesus our hope” (1Tim. 1:1), and his future appearing is “the blessed hope” (Titus 2:13). Thus, hope refers to eschatological glory (2Cor. 3:11–12; Eph. 1:18). It is “the hope of the resurrection” (Acts 23:6; cf. 24:15; 26:6–9), our transformation into Christ’s likeness (1John 3:1–3). That expectation stimulates various hopes for God’s plans to be realized in one’s own or others’ lives (1Cor. 9:10, 13; Phil. 2:19, 23; 2Tim. 2:25; 2John 12). So hope is named repeatedly as an essential Christian attribute (Rom. 12:12; 15:4, 13; 1Cor. 13:13).
The territory linking the Balkans with the Greek Peninsula. Though its borders shifted through its history, Macedonia stood north of Thessaly and mainland Greece, east of Epirus, and west of Thrace. Its topography is dominated by mountains and coastal plains along the Thermaic Gulf and northern shore of the Aegean Sea.
From the time that Paul received his vision of a Macedonian man calling him to proclaim the gospel (Acts 16:9), Macedonia played a significant role in Paul’s journeys and the early church. He established three churches there and wrote three letters to them (Philippians and 12Thessalonians). Several of Paul’s companions were Macedonians, including Sopater, Aristarchus, Secundus, and Jason (Acts 17:4–7; 20:4). In Paul’s correspondence he spoke of Macedonia at least sixteen times in six different letters. Answering the Macedonian call during his second missionary journey, Paul arrived in Philippi, which was “a Roman colony and a leading city of that district of Macedonia” (Acts 16:12). There he led Lydia, the first known European convert, to the gospel. After casting an evil spirit out from a slave girl, Paul and Silas were imprisoned, and they led the Philippian jailer and his family to the gospel (Acts 16:16–40). Lydia and the Philippian church generously supported Paul’s ministry and the church in Jerusalem (Rom. 15:26–27; 2Cor. 8:1–5; Phil. 4:15–17).
Paul then traveled along the paved Via Egnatia to Thessalonica, where he established a church composed of “some” Jews and a “great many” Greeks and leading women (Acts 17:4). He stayed there at least three Sabbaths before opposition drove him to Berea (17:1–9), where many examined the Scriptures and more eagerly accepted the gospel (17:11). From Berea, he left Macedonia for Athens and Corinth in Achaia. Paul later returned to Macedonia during his third missionary journey (20:1–6).
A Pharisee commissioned by Jesus Christ to preach the gospel to Gentiles. His Jewish name was “Saul” (Acts 9:4; 13:9), but he preferred using his Roman name, especially when he signed his letters.
By our best estimates, Paul spent about thirty years preaching the gospel of Jesus Christ (AD 3467)—a ministry that can be divided roughly into three decades. The first decade of his ministry (AD 34–46) has been called the “silent years,” as we have few details from Acts or the Pauline Epistles about his activities. For example, we know that he preached in Damascus for a while and spent some time in Arabia (a total of three years [Gal. 1:17–18]). He made a quick trip to Jerusalem to meet Peter and James the brother of Jesus. Then he returned home to Tarsus, evidently preaching there for several years, until Barnabas brought him to Antioch in Syria to help with the ministry of this mixed congregation of Jews and Gentiles (Acts 9:26–30; 11:25–26). In the second decade of his ministry (AD 46–59), Paul spent most of his life on the road, an itinerant ministry of preaching the gospel and planting churches from Cyprus to Corinth. For most of the third decade (AD 59–67), Paul ministered the gospel from prison, spending over two years imprisoned in Caesarea, another two to three years in a Roman prison (Acts ends here), released for a brief time (two years?) before his final arrest and imprisonment in Rome, where, according to church tradition, he was executed.
During his itinerant ministry, Paul traveled Roman roads that led him to free cities (Ephesus, Thessalonica, Athens) and Roman colonies (Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe, Troas, Philippi, Corinth). Founding churches in urban centers afforded Paul more opportunities for ministry and for his work of making and repairing tents. Traveling within the borders of the Roman Empire also provided a better chance of protection as a citizen. At first, Paul and Barnabas covered familiar territory: Cyprus (Barnabas’s home region) and Anatolia (Paul’s home region). Then, with successive journeys Paul and other missionary companions branched out to Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Achaia. Some of the towns that Paul visited were small and provincial (Derbe, Lystra); others were major cities of great economic and intellectual commerce (Ephesus, Corinth, Athens). In the midst of such cultural diversity, Paul found receptive ears among a variety of ethnic groups: Gauls, Phrygians and Lycaonians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews. Previously, Paul’s Gentile converts had worshiped many gods (local, ethnic, and imperial), offered sacrifices at many shrines and temples, and joined in all the religious festivals (often involving immoral and ungodly practices). After believing the gospel, Paul’s predominantly Gentile churches turned from their idolatrous ways to serve “the living and true God” (1Thess. 1:9). Their exclusive devotion to one God quickly led to economic and political problems, for both Paul’s converts and the cities of their residence. No more offerings for patron gods, no more support for local synagogues or the imperial cult—Paul’s converts were often persecuted for their newly found faith by local religious guilds (idol makers!) and civic leaders courting Roman favor (Acts 17:6–9; 19:23–41; Phil. 1:27–30; 1Thess. 2:14–16). Indeed, Paul often was run out of town as a troublemaker who preached a message that threatened both the Jewish and the Roman ways of life (Acts 16:19–24; Phil. 3:17–4:1). It is no wonder that Paul’s activities eventually landed him in a Roman prison. It was only a matter of time before his reputation as a “lawbreaker” caught up with him (Acts 21:21). But that did not stop Paul. Whether as a prisoner or a free man, Paul proclaimed the gospel of Jesus Christ until the day he died.
Paul was a tentmaker, a missionary, a writer, a preacher, a teacher, a theologian, an evangelist, a mentor, a prophet, a miracle worker, a prisoner, and a martyr. His life story reads like the tale of three different men: a devout Pharisee, a tireless traveler, an ambitious writer. He knew the Scriptures better than did most people. He saw more of the world than did most merchants. He wrote some of the longest letters known at that time. To his converts, he was a faithful friend. To his opponents, he was an irrepressible troublemaker. But, according to Paul, he was nothing more or less than the man whom God had called through Jesus Christ to take the gospel to the ends of the earth.
Silas was a Jewish Christian, a Roman citizen (Acts 16:3738), and a leader of the Jerusalem church (15:22). He was assigned the very important role of emissary of the Jerusalem church to Antioch, carrying the letter related to the Jerusalem council of Acts 15. He was also a prophet (15:32). Paul chose Silas to accompany him on the second missionary journey (15:40–41), yet Silas was a coequal with Paul rather than a subordinate like Timothy. Silas’s presence probably was a validation of Paul’s gospel, and Silas likely represented the Jerusalem church in the “Pauline” missionary work.
Paul probably refers to Silas as an apostle of Christ in 1Thess. 2:6. Silas preached the gospel to the Corinthians (2Cor. 1:19) and is a named cosender of both Thessalonian letters. The same Silas is the secretary who wrote down the letter 1Peter for the apostle Peter (1Pet. 5:12–13). “Silas” is the Greek form of the Hebrew or Aramaic name “Saul”; the Latin spelling is “Silvanus” (cf. Gk. Silouanos in 2Cor. 1:19; 1Thess. 1:1; 2Thess. 1:1; 1Pet. 5:12).
In the world of the Bible, a person was viewed as a unity of being with the pervading breath and thus imprint of the loving and holy God. The divine-human relationship consequently is portrayed in the Bible as predominantly spiritual in nature. God is spirit, and humankind may communicate with him in the spiritual realm. The ancients believed in an invisible world of spirits that held most, if not all, reasons for natural events and human actions in the visible world.
The OT writers used the common Hebrew word ruakh (“wind” or “breath”) to describe force and even life from the God of the universe. In its most revealing first instance, God’s ruakh hovered above the waters of the uncreated world (Gen. 1:2). In the next chapter of Genesis a companion word, neshamah (“breath”), is used as God breathed into Adam’s nostrils “the breath of life” (2:7). God thus breathed his own image into the first human being. Humankind’s moral obligations in the remainder of the Bible rest on this breathing act of God.
The OT authors often employ ruakh simply to denote air in motion or breath from a person’s mouth. However, special instances of the use of ruakh include references to the very life of a person (Gen. 7:22; Ps. 104:29), an attitude or emotion (Gen. 41:8; Num. 14:24; Ps. 77:3), the negative traits of pride or temper (Ps. 76:12), a generally good disposition (Prov. 11:13; 18:14), the seat of conversion (Ezek. 18:31; 36:26), and determination given by God (2Chron. 36:22; Hag. 1:14).
The NT authors used the Greek term pneuma to convey the concept of spirit. In the world of the NT, the human spirit was understood as the divine part of human reality as distinct from the material realm. The spirit appears conscious and capable of rejoicing (Luke 1:47). Jesus was described by Luke as growing and becoming “strong in spirit” (1:80). In “spirit” Jesus “knew” what certain teachers of the law were thinking in their hearts (Mark 2:8). Likewise, Jesus “was deeply moved in spirit and troubled” at the sickness of a loved one (John 11:33). At the end of his life, Jesus gave up his spirit (John 19:30).
According to Jesus, the spirit is the place of God’s new covenant work of conversion and worship (John 3:5; 4:24). He declared the human spirit’s dependence on God and ascribed great virtue to those people who were “poor in spirit” (Matt. 5:3).
Human beings who were possessed by an evil spirit were devalued in Mediterranean society. In various places in the Synoptic Gospels and the book of Acts, either Jesus or the disciples were involved in exorcisms of such spirits (Matt. 8:2833; Mark 1:21–28; 7:24–30; 9:14–29; 5:1–20; 9:17–29; Luke 8:26–33; 9:37–42; Acts 5:16).
The apostle Paul pointed to the spirit as the seat of conversion (Rom. 7:6; 1Cor. 5:5). He described believers as facing a struggle between flesh and spirit in regard to living a sanctified life (Rom. 8:2–17; Gal. 5:16–17). A contradiction seems apparent in Pauline thinking as he appears to embrace Greek dualistic understanding of body (flesh) and spirit while likewise commanding that “spirit, soul and body be kept blameless” (1Thess. 5:23). However, the Christian struggle between flesh and Spirit (the Holy Spirit) centers around the believer’s body being dead because of sin but the spirit being alive because of the crucified and resurrected Christ (Rom. 8:10). Believers therefore are encouraged to lead a holistic life, lived in the Spirit.
While in the OT suffering is regularly an indication of divine displeasure (Lev. 26:1636; Deut. 28:20–68; Ps. 44:10–12; Isa. 1:25; cf. Heb. 10:26–31), in the NT it becomes the means by which blessing comes to humanity.
The Bible often shows that sinfulness results in suffering (Gen. 2:17; 6:5–7; Exod. 32:33; 2Sam. 12:13–18; Rom. 1:18; 1Cor. 11:27–30). Job’s friends mistakenly assume that he has suffered because of disobedience (Job 4:7–9; 8:3–4, 20; 11:6). Job passionately defends himself (12:4; 23:10), and in the final chapter of the book God commends Job and condemns his friends for their accusations (42:7–8; cf. 1:1, 22; 2:10). The writer makes clear that suffering is not necessarily evidence of sinfulness. Like Job’s friends, Jesus’ disciples assume that blindness is an indication of sinfulness (John 9:1–2). Jesus rejects this simplistic notion of retributive suffering (John 9:3, 6–7; cf. Luke 13:1–5).
The NT writers reveal that Jesus’ suffering was prophesied in the OT (Mark 9:12; 14:21; Luke 18:31–32; 24:46; Acts 3:18; 17:3; 26:22–23; 1Pet. 1:11; referring to OT texts such as Ps. 22; Isa. 52:13–53:12; Zech. 13:7). The Lord Jesus is presented as the answer to human suffering: (1)Through the incarnation, God’s Son personally experienced human suffering (Phil. 2:6–8; Heb. 2:9; 5:8). (2)Through his suffering, Christ paid the price for sin (Rom. 4:25; 3:25–26), so that believers are set free from sin (Rom. 6:6, 18, 22) and helped in temptation (Heb. 2:18). (3)Christ Jesus intercedes for his suffering followers (Rom. 8:34–35). (4)Christ is the example in suffering (1Pet. 2:21; 4:1; cf. Phil. 3:10; 2Cor. 1:5; 4:10; 1Pet. 4:13), and though he died once for sins (Heb. 10:12), he continues to suffer as his church suffers (Acts 9:4–5). (5)Christ provides hope of resurrection (Rom. 6:5; 1Cor. 15:20–26; Phil. 3:10–11) and a future life without suffering or death (Rev. 21:4).
The NT writers repeatedly mention the benefits of suffering, for it has become part of God’s work of redemption. The suffering of believers accompanies the proclamation and advancement of the gospel (Acts 5:41–42; 9:15–16; 2Cor. 4:10–11; 6:2–10; Phil. 1:12, 27–29; 1Thess. 2:14–16; 2Tim. 1:8; 4:5) and results in salvation (Matt. 10:22; 2Cor. 1:6; 1Thess. 2:16; 2Tim. 2:10; Heb. 10:39), faith (Heb. 10:32–34, 38–39; 1Pet. 1:7), the kingdom of God (Acts 14:22), resurrection from the dead (Phil. 3:10–11), and the crown of life (Rev. 2:10). It is an essential part of the development toward Christian maturity (Rom. 5:3–4; 2Cor. 4:11; Heb. 12:4; James 1:3–4; 1Pet. 1:7; 4:1).
Suffering is associated with knowing Christ (Phil. 3:10); daily inward renewal (2Cor. 4:16); purity, understanding, patience, kindness, sincere love, truthful speech, the power of God (2Cor. 4:4–10); comfort and endurance (2Cor. 1:6); obedience (Heb. 5:8); blessing (1Pet. 3:14; 4:14); glory (Rom. 8:17; 2Cor. 4:17); and joy (Matt. 5:12; Acts 5:41; 2Cor. 6:10; 12:10; James 1:2; 1Pet. 1:6; 4:13). Other positive results of Christian suffering include perseverance (Rom. 5:3; James 1:3), character and hope (Rom. 5:4), strength (2Cor. 12:10), and maturity and completeness (James 1:4). Present suffering is light and momentary when compared to future glory (Matt. 5:10–12; Acts 14:22; Rom. 8:18; 2Cor. 4:17; Heb. 10:34–36; 1Pet. 1:5–7; 4:12–13).
Throughout the Bible, believers are instructed to help those who suffer. The OT law provides principles for assisting the poor, the disadvantaged, and the oppressed (Exod. 20:10; 21:2; 23:11; Lev. 19:13, 34; 25:10, 35; Deut. 14:28–29; 15:1–2; 24:19–21). Jesus regularly taught his followers to help the poor (Matt. 5:42; 6:3; 19:21; 25:34–36; Luke 4:18; 12:33; 14:13, 21). It is believers’ responsibility to show mercy (Matt. 5:7; 9:13), be generous (Rom. 12:8; 2Cor. 8:7; 1Tim. 6:18), mourn with mourners (Rom. 12:15), carry other’s burdens (Gal. 6:1–2), and visit prisoners (Matt. 25:36, 43). See also Servant of the Lord.
First Timothy, along with 2Timothy and Titus, is known as one of the apostle Paul’s Pastoral Epistles. These letters have earned this designation because they were addressed to pastors and deal with particular problems that they were facing in their respective churches. This letter was addressed to Timothy, whom Paul affectionately called “my son,” most likely because the apostle had led him to faith in Christ (1:18; cf. 1:2). At Paul’s urging, Timothy took on the role of providing leadership to the church in Ephesus (1:3), which had been infiltrated by false teachers (1:34). Paul wrote this letter to Timothy, instructing him to rebuke the false teachers in the church and to fight the good fight of faith (1:18). The apostle concisely summarized the major theme of this letter by saying, “I am writing you these instructions so that ... you will know how people ought to conduct themselves in God’s household, which is the church of the living God, the pillar and foundation of the truth” (3:14–15).
“Word” is used in the Bible to refer to the speech of God in oral, written, or incarnate form. In each of these uses, God desires to make himself known to his people. The communication of God is always personal and relational, whether he speaks to call things into existence (Gen. 1) or to address an individual directly (Gen. 2:1617; Exod. 3:14). The prophets and the apostles received the word of God (Deut. 18:14–22; John 16:13), some of which was proclaimed but not recorded. The greatest revelation in this regard is the person of Jesus Christ, who is called the “Word” of God (John 1:1, 14).
The psalmist declared God’s word to be an eternal object of hope and trust that gives light and direction (Ps. 119), and Jesus declared the word to be truth (John 17:17). The word is particularized and intimately connected with God himself by means of the key phrases “your word,” “the word of God,” “the word of the Lord,” “word about Christ,” and “the word of Christ” (Rom. 10:17; Col. 3:16). Our understanding of the word is informed by a variety of terms and contexts in the canon of Scripture, a collection of which is found in Ps. 119.
The theme of the word in Ps. 119 is continued and clarified in the NT, accentuating the intimate connection between the word of God and God himself. The “Word” of God is the eternal Lord Jesus Christ (John 1:1; 1John 1:1–4), who took on flesh and blood so that we might see the glory of the eternal God. The sovereign glory of Christ as the Word of God is depicted in the vision of John in Rev. 19:13. As the Word of God, Jesus Christ ultimately gives us our lives (John 1:4; 6:33; 10:10), sustains our lives (John 5:24; 6:51, 54; 8:51), and ultimately renders a just judgment regarding our lives (John 5:30; 8:16, 26; 9:39; cf. Matt. 25:31–33; Heb. 4:12).
The words “wrath” and “anger” are used in Bible translations for a variety of Hebrew and Greek words that refer to the disposition of someone (including God) toward persons (including oneself [Gen. 45:5]) or situations considered to be seriously displeasing. There may be degrees of anger (Zech. 1:15), and it may be accompanied by other sentiments such as distress (Gen. 45:5), hatred (Job 16:9), jealousy (Rom. 10:19), grief (Mark 3:5), and vengeance (Mic. 5:15).
Anger may be a proper response to sin or a sin-distorted world, as seen in, for example, Moses’ reaction to the golden calf (Exod. 32:19). Paul envisages an anger that does not necessarily involve sin (Eph. 4:26). Jesus is said to display anger at the willful stubbornness of his contemporaries (Mark 3:5), and his response to the mourning for Lazarus (John 11:33) might be rendered as “outrage,” an anger directed not so much at the mourners as at the ugliness of death, the consequence of sin, and with thoughts, perhaps, of his own impending death necessitated by this fallen world.
On the other hand, a display of anger may be the result of distorted perceptions or values (Gen. 4:56). A tendency to anger in oneself needs to be kept in check (James 1:19) and in others needs to be handled prudently (Prov. 15:1). Unchecked, anger may lead to violence and murder (Gen. 49:6). In several NT lists anger is associated with such other sinful behavior as quarreling, jealousy, selfishness, slander, malice, gossip, conceit, strife, idolatry, sorcery, and bitterness (2Cor. 12:20; Gal. 5:20; Eph. 4:31; Col. 3:8).
In Ps. 76:10 NLT (cf. ESV, NASB, NRSV) God is said to cause human anger to bring him praise (but see NIV, NET, where it is God’s wrath against human beings that brings him praise). Perhaps an instance of this is seen in Rom. 13:4–5, where the wrath of the civil authority serves to maintain justice under God.
Direct Matches
Most narrowly construed, Achaia is a region along thenorthern coast of the Peloponnesus, the southern peninsula of Greece.Paul’s letters to the Corinthians were sent to this region(1 Cor. 16:15; 2 Cor. 1:1). In the NT, the term also has abroader meaning, so that the phrase “Macedonia and Achaia”refers inclusively to all of Greece (Acts 19:21; Rom. 15:26; 1 Thess.1:7–8).
Jesus Christ is the centerpiece of the Christian Scriptures. The meaning and interpretation of both Testaments is properly grasped only in light of the person and work of Jesus Christ. That is not to say that the Testaments testify to Jesus Christ in the exact same way; they obviously do not, but both Testaments are part of the inscripturated revelation that, in light of the incarnation, proclaims Jesus Christ to be the fullest manifestation of God given to humankind.
Old Testament
According to the Scriptures. The early Christians were adamant that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ happened “according to the Scriptures” (1 Cor. 15:3–4), which meant that these events lined up with Israel’s sacred traditions. On the road to Emmaus the risen Jesus explained to the two travelers the things concerning himself “beginning with Moses and all the Prophets,” in relation to the death and glorification of the Messiah (Luke 24:27). In one of the major Johannine discourses, Jesus tells the Pharisees that the Scriptures “testify about me” (John 5:39). Early Christian authors could find certain key texts that demonstrated the conformity of the Christ-event to the pattern of Israel’s Scriptures, such as Pss. 2; 110; 118; Isa. 53. Yet much of the OT can be understood without mention of Jesus Christ in relation to its own historical context, and there is the danger of overly allegorizing OT texts in order to make them say something about Jesus Christ and the church.
The relationship between the Testaments. The way that the NT authors echo, allude to, quote, and interpret the OT is a complex matter, but at least two points need to be made about the relationship between the two Testaments.
First, the OT anticipates and illuminates the coming of Jesus Christ. “Anticipate” does not mean “predict,” but the law and the prophets foreshadow the offices and identity of Jesus Christ. The offices of prophet, priest, and king in the OT prefigure the ministry of Christ, who is the one who reveals God, intercedes on behalf of humankind, and is the Messiah and Lord. The sacrificial cultus, with the necessity of shedding blood for the removal of sin, prefigures the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ. This is why the law is a “shadow” of the one who was to come (Col. 2:17; Heb. 10:1). “Illuminate” means that certain OT texts, though not referring to Jesus in their historical or literary context, explain aspects of his person and work. This is seen most clearly in the way that the psalms are used in the NT. Texts such as Pss. 2:7; 110:1–4 provided biblical categories that explained the nature of Jesus’ sonship, the quality of his priestly ministry, and his installation as God’s vice-regent.
Second, we should differentiate between prophecy and typology. The prophetic promises in Ezek. 37; Amos 9; and Mic. 4 about a future Davidic king whom God will use to save and restore Israel are genuine prophecies that look forward to a future event yet to be fulfilled. These texts set forth the job description of the Messiah as the renewal and restoration of Israel from bondage and exile. It is unsurprising then that in Acts, James the brother of Jesus could cite Amos 9:11–12 as proof that Gentiles should be accepted into the people of God with the coming of the Messiah (Acts 15:15–18).
Typological interpretation, on the other hand, sees OT persons, places, or events as prototypes or patterns of NT persons, places, or events. For example, in Rom. 5:14 Paul says that Adam is a “type” or “pattern” of the one to come. Similarly, Matthew’s use of Isa. 7:14 in Matt. 1:23 is also typological rather than prophetic. In the context of Isaiah, the promise refers to a child born during the reign of King Ahaz as a sign that the Judean kingdom will survive the Assyrian onslaught. Matthew’s citation does not demand an exact correspondence of events as much as it postulates a correlation of patterns or types between Isaiah’s narrative and the Matthean birth story. The coming of God’s Son, the manifestation of God’s presence, and the rescue of Israel through a child born to a young girl bring to Matthew’s mind Isa. 7 as an obvious prophetic precedent, repeated at a new juncture of redemptive history.
A Christology of the Old Testament. The NT authors interpreted the OT in search of answers to questions pertaining to the identity and ministry of Jesus Christ, the nature of the people of God, and the arrival of the new age. They detected patterns in the OT that were repeated or recapitulated in Jesus’ own person. They proclaimed that the prophetic promises made to Israel had been made good in Jesus Christ, and they found allusions to the various events of his life, death, and exaltation. Jesus and Israel’s Scriptures became a mutually interpretive spiral whereby the Christians began to understand the OT in light of Jesus and understood Jesus in light of the OT. In this canonical setting we can legitimately develop a “Christology of the Old Testament.”
New Testament
The Gospels. The canonical Gospels are four ancient biographies that pay attention to the history and significance of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. They represent a testimony to Jesus and embody the collective memory of his person and actions as they were transmitted and interpreted by Christians in the Greco-Roman world of the mid- to late first century.
All four Gospels follow the same basic outline by variably detailing Jesus’ ministry, passion, and exaltation, and all of them place the story of Jesus in the context of the fulfillment of the story of Israel. At the same time, each Gospel in its plot and portrayal of Jesus remains distinctive in its own right. Yet they are not four different Jesuses, but rather four parallel portraits of Jesus, much like four stained-glass windows or four paintings depict the same person in different ways.
The Gospel of Matthew portrays Jesus as the long-awaited Davidic Messiah of Israel, with a focus on his teaching authority as a type of new Moses. The Gospel of Mark describes Jesus as the powerful Son of God and concurrently as the suffering Son of Man, whose cross reveals the reality of his identity and mission. The Gospel of Luke emphasizes Jesus’ role as an anointed prophet with a special concern for the poor and outcasts and his role as dispenser of the Holy Spirit. Without flattening the distinctive christological shape of each of the Synoptic Gospels, we could say that they focus on Jesus as the proclaimer of the kingdom of God and as king of the very same kingdom.
The Gospel of John has its own set of characteristic emphases in which Jesus’ consciousness of his divine nature and purpose is heightened. Programmatic for the entirety of John’s Gospel is the prologue in 1:1–18 about the “Word [who] became flesh,” which gives a clear theology of incarnation and revelation associated with Jesus’ coming. There is also much material unique to John’s Gospel, such as the “I am” statements that further exposit the nature of Jesus’ person and the climactic confession by Thomas that Jesus is “my Lord and my God” (20:28).
The Gospels indicate that mere knowledge that Jesus died for the purpose of salvation is an insufficient understanding of him. What is also needed, and what they provide, is an understanding of his teachings and his mission in light of Israel’s Scriptures and in view of the sociopolitical situation of Palestine. Jesus came to redeem and renew Israel so that a transformed Israel would transform the world.
Acts. The book of Acts contains the story of the emergence of the early church from Jerusalem to Rome. Even though Acts is a repository of apostolic preaching and plots the beginnings of the Gentile mission, it is the sequel to Luke’s Gospel and is very much the story of Jesus in perfect tense (i.e., a past event with ongoing significance). The most succinct summary of the Christology of Acts is in Peter’s speech in Jerusalem, where he states that “this Jesus” whom they crucified has been made both “Lord and Christ [NIV: “Messiah”]” by God (2:36). In the succeeding narratives emphasis is given to “Jesus is the Christ [NIV: “Messiah”]” (e.g., 9:22; 17:3; 18:5), which is a message pertinent to Jews and Gentiles (20:21).
Paul’s Letters. The Pauline Epistles, although they are situational, pastoral, and not given primarily to christological exposition, still exhibit beliefs about Jesus held by Paul and his Christian contemporaries. The high points of Paul’s Christology can be detected in his use of traditional material such as Col. 1:15–20, which exposits the sufficiency and the supremacy of Christ. Philippians 2:5–11 narrates the story of the incarnation as an example of self-giving love. In 1 Cor. 8:6 Paul offers a Christianized version of the Shema of Deut. 6:4. There is a petition to Jesus as “Come, Lord!” in 1 Cor. 16:22. Paul can also refer to Jesus as God in Rom. 9:5 (although the grammar is ambiguous). For Paul, Jesus is both the “heavenly man” (1 Cor. 15:47–49) and the Son to come from heaven (1 Thess. 1:10). This interest in the divine Son of God does not mean that Paul was ignorant of or disinterested in the life and teachings of Jesus. Elsewhere he implies knowledge of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Rom. 14:14; 1 Cor. 7:10–11) and refers to the incarnation (e.g., 2 Cor. 8:9; Col. 2:9).
A number of titles are used to describe Jesus in Paul’s letters, including “Lord” and “Christ/Messiah” (and variations such as “Lord Jesus Christ” and “Christ Jesus”), “Savior,” and “Seed of David” (Rom. 1:3). But probably the most apt expression of Jesus’ nature according to Paul is “Son of God” (e.g., Rom. 1:4; 2 Cor. 1:19; Gal. 2:20). This language of sonship suggests that Jesus is the means of God’s salvation and glory and is the special agent through whom the Father acts. Referring to Jesus as “Son” also underscores Jesus’ unique relationship to God the Father and his unique role in executing the ordained plan of salvation for the elect.
We might also add that Paul provides the building blocks of what would later become a full-blown trinitarian theology, such as in the benediction of 2 Cor. 13:14 and in general exhortations about the gospel (1 Cor. 2:1–5). It must be emphasized that Paul’s Christology cannot be separated from his eschatology, soteriology, and ecclesiology. The sending of God’s Son (see Rom. 8:3; Gal. 4:4–5) into the world marks the coming of redemption and salvation through the cross and resurrection of the Son, and these are appropriated by faith. Those who believe become members of the restored Israel, the renewed Adamic race, and constituent members of the body of Christ. To that we might add the experiential element of Paul’s Christology as Jesus is known in the experience of salvation, prayer, and worship (e.g., Gal. 2:19–20).
The General Letters. The General Letters (also called the Catholic Epistles) provide a further array of images and explorations into the person and work of Jesus Christ and how they relate to the community of faith. The message of Hebrews is essentially “Jesus is better!” He is better than the angels and better than Moses; he is a better high priest; he offers a better sacrifice, establishes a better law, and instigates a better covenant. This letter is a sermonic exhortation against falling away from the faith (e.g., 2:1–4), and toward that end the author sets before his readers the magnificence of Jesus Christ, who is “the same yesterday and today and forever” (13:8).
James has little christological content and focuses instead on exhortations that bear remarkable resemblance to the teachings of Jesus from the Gospels. Even so, the letter makes passing reference to the “glorious Lord Jesus Christ” (2:1; cf. 1:1).
Central to 1 Peter is the glory and salvation that will be manifested at the revelation of Jesus Christ at his second coming (1:5, 7, 9, 13; 4:13; 5:1). Much attention is given to Jesus’ sacrificial death as a lamb (1:19), the example of his suffering (2:21–23; 4:1–2, 13), and the substitutionary nature of his death (2:24; 3:18). He is the Shepherd and Overseer of the souls of Christians (2:25). Peter writes this to encourage congregations in Asia Minor living under adverse conditions, and he sets before them the pattern of Jesus as a model for their own journey.
In 2 Peter we find a mix of Jewish eschatological concepts and Hellenistic religious language, with the author seeking to defend the apostolic gospel in a pagan culture. Jesus is the source of knowledge (1:2, 8; 2:20) and righteousness (1:1). Much emphasis is given to the coming kingdom of Jesus Christ (1:11, 16; 3:10). Jesus is the sustainer and renewer of the church and also the coming judge of the entire world.
Similar themes can be found in Jude, which is addressed to a group of believers who have been infiltrated by false teachers promoting licentiousness. Jude declares the infiltrators to be condemned and calls on the believers to hold fast to the faith. Jesus is the “Sovereign and Lord” (v. 4), Jesus saved people out of Egypt during the exodus (v. 5 [but see marginal notes on the variant reading “Lord”]), the second coming of Jesus will mark the revelation of his “mercy” (v. 21), and the benediction ascribes “glory, majesty, power and authority” to God through Jesus (v. 25). Most characteristic of all is the emphasis upon Jesus/God as the one who keeps the believers in the grip of his saving power (vv. 1, 21, 23).
The Letters of John take up where the Gospel of John left off, focusing on Jesus as the incarnate Word of God. The first of the three Johannine Epistles appears to have been written in a context where a community of Christians was being pressured by Jews to deny that Jesus is the Messiah (2:22) and also by dissident docetists to deny that Jesus had a physical body (4:2; 5:6). The major focus, however, is on Jesus as the Son of God (1:3, 7; 2:23; 3:8, 23; 4:9–10, 15; 5:11) and the incarnation of God’s very own truth and love (3:16; cf. 2 John 3).
Revelation. The Christology of the book of Revelation is best summed up in the opening description of Jesus as “him who is, and who was, and who is to come,” which underscores the lordship of Jesus over the past, present, and future. John then describes Jesus with the threefold titles “the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth” (1:4–5). In many ways, the story and Christology of Revelation are paradoxical. Jesus is both the victim of Roman violence and the victor over human evil. Jesus is the suffering “Lamb of God” and the powerful “Lion of the tribe of Judah.” In Rev. 4–5 we are given a picture of the worship in heaven and the enthronement of Jesus, and yet the realities on earth are a dearth of heavenly goodness, with persecution and apostasy rampant (Rev. 1–3). This tension continues until the final revelation of Jesus, when the heavenly Lord returns to bring the goodness and power of heaven to transform the perils of the earth and bring his people into the new Jerusalem.
Summary
The primary fixtures of a biblical Christology are (1) Jesus Christ is the promised deliverer intimated in Israel’s Scriptures, whose identity and mission are anticipated and illuminated by the law and the prophets; (2) the man Jesus of Nazareth is identified with the risen and exalted Lord Jesus Christ; and (3) Jesus participates in the very identity and being of God. See also Jesus Christ.
Terminology
TheNT word for “church” is ekklēsia, which means“gathering, assembly, congregation.” In classical Greekthe term was used almost exclusively for political gatherings. Inparticular, in Athens the word signified the assembling of thecitizens for the purpose of conducting the affairs of the city.Moreover, ekklēsia referred only to the actual meeting, not tothe citizens themselves. When the people were not assembled, theywere not considered to be the ekklēsia. The NT records threeinstances of this secular usage of the term (Acts 19:32, 39, 41).
Themost important background for the Christian use of the term is theLXX (Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, dated c. 250BC), which uses the word in a religious sense about one hundredtimes, almost always as a translation of the Hebrew word qahal. Whileqahal does not indicate a secular gathering (in contrast to ’edah,the typical Hebrew word for Israel’s religious gathering,translated by Greek synagōgē), it does denote Israel’ssacred meetings. This is especially the case in Deuteronomy, whereqahal is linked with the covenant.
Inthe NT, ekklēsia is used to refer to the community of God’speople 109 times (out of 114 occurrences of the term). Although theword occurs in only two Gospel passages (Matt. 16:18; 18:17), it isof special importance in Acts (23 times) and the Pauline writings (46times). It is found 20 times in Revelation and in isolated instancesin James and Hebrews. Three general conclusions can be drawn fromthis usage. First, ekklēsia (in both the singular and theplural) applies predominantly to a local assembly of those whoprofess faith in and allegiance to Christ. Second, ekklēsiadesignates the universal church (Acts 8:3; 9:31; 1 Cor. 12:28;15:9; especially in the later Pauline letters: Eph. 1:22–23;Col. 1:18). Third, the ekklēsia is God’s congregation(1 Cor. 1:2; 2 Cor. 1:1).
TheNature of the Church
Thenature of the church is too broad to be exhausted in the meaning ofone word. To capture its significance, the NT authors utilize a richarray of metaphorical descriptions. Nevertheless, there are thosemetaphors that seem to dominate the biblical pictures of the church,five of which call for comment: the people of God, the kingdom ofGod, the eschatological temple of God, the bride of Christ, and thebody of Christ.
Thepeople of God.Essentially, the concept of the people of God can be summed up in thecovenantal phrase: “I will be their God, and they will be mypeople” (see Exod. 6:6–7; 19:5; Lev. 26:9–14; Jer.7:23; 30:22; 32:37–40; Ezek. 11:19–20; 36:22–28;Acts 15:14; 2 Cor. 6:16; Heb. 8:10–12; Rev. 21:3). Thus,the people of God are those in both the OT and the NT eras whor*sponded to God by faith and whose spiritual origin restsexclusively in God’s grace.
Tospeak of the one people of God transcending the eras of the OT andthe NT necessarily raises the question of the relationship betweenthe church and Israel. Modern interpreters prefer not to polarize thematter into an either/or issue. Rather, they talk about the churchand Israel in terms of there being both continuity and discontinuitybetween them.
Continuitybetween the church and Israel. Two ideas establish the fact that thechurch and Israel are portrayed in the Bible as being in a continuousrelationship. First, in the OT the church was present in Israel insome sense. Acts 7:38 suggests this connection when, alluding toDeut. 9:10, it speaks of the church (ekklēsia) in thewilderness. The same idea is probably to be inferred from theintimate association noted earlier existing between the wordsekklēsia and qahal, especially when the latter is qualified bythe phrase “of God.” Furthermore, if the church is viewedin some NT passages as preexistent, then one finds therein theprototype of the creation of Israel (see Exod. 25:40; Acts 7:44; Gal.4:26; Heb. 12:22; Rev. 21:11; cf. Eph. 1:3–14).
Second,Israel in some sense is present in the church in the NT. The many OTnames for Israel applied to the church in the NT establish that fact.Some of those are “Israel” (Gal. 6:15–16; Eph.2:12; Heb. 8:8–10; Rev. 2:14), “a chosen people”(1 Pet. 2:9), “the circumcision” (Rom. 2:28–29;Phil. 3:3; Col. 2:11), “Abraham’s seed” (Rom. 4:16;Gal. 3:29), “the remnant” (Rom. 9:27; 11:5–7), “theelect” (Rom. 11:28; Eph. 1:4), “the flock” (Acts20:28; Heb. 13:20; 1 Pet. 5:2), and “priesthood”(1 Pet. 2:9; Rev. 1:6; 5:10).
Discontinuitybetween the church and Israel. The church, however, is not totallyidentical with Israel; discontinuity also characterizes therelationship. The church, according to the NT, is the eschatological(end-time) Israel incorporated in Jesus Christ and, as such, is aprogression beyond historical Israel (1 Cor. 10:11; 2 Cor.5:14–21). Indeed, significant discontinuity is introduced bythe fact that the church includes Gentiles as members of Israel,without requiring them to convert to Judaism first. Gentiles enter asGentiles. However, a caveat must be issued at this point. Althoughthe church is a progression beyond Israel, it does not seem to be thepermanent replacement of Israel (see Rom. 9–11, esp. 11:25–27).
Thekingdom of God.Many scholars have maintained that the life, death, and resurrectionof Jesus inaugurated the kingdom of God, producing the overlapping ofthe two ages. The kingdom has already dawned but is not yet complete.The first aspect pertains to Jesus’ first coming, and thesecond aspect relates to his second coming. In other words, the ageto come has broken into this age, and now the two existsimultaneously. This background is crucial in ascertaining therelationship between the church and the kingdom of God, because thechurch also exists in the tension that results from the overlappingof the two ages. Accordingly, one may define the church as theforeshadowing of the kingdom. Two ideas flow from this definition:first, the church is related to the kingdom of God; second, thechurch is not equal to the kingdom of God.
Thechurch and the kingdom of God are related. Not until after theresurrection of Jesus does the NT speak with regularity about thechurch. However, there are early signs of the church in the teachingand ministry of Jesus, in both general and specific ways. In general,Jesus anticipated the later official formation of the church in thathe gathered to himself the twelve disciples, who constituted thebeginnings of eschatological Israel—in effect, the remnant.More specifically, Jesus explicitly referred to the church in twopassages: Matt. 16:18–19; 18:17. In the first passage Jesuspromised that he would build his church despite satanic opposition,thus assuring the ultimate success of his mission. The notion of thechurch overcoming the forces of evil coincides with the idea that thekingdom of God will prevail over its enemies and bespeaks theintimate association between the church and the kingdom. The secondpassage relates to the future organization of the church, not unlikethe Jewish synagogue practices of Jesus’ day.
Thechurch and the kingdom of God are not identical. As intimatelyrelated as the church and the kingdom of God are, the NT does notequate the two, as is evident in the fact that the early Christianspreached the kingdom, not the church (Acts 8:12; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23,31). The NT identifies the church as the people of the kingdom (e.g.,Rev. 5:10), not the kingdom itself. Moreover, the church is theinstrument of the kingdom. This is especially clear from Matt.16:18–19, where the preaching of Peter and the church becomethe keys to opening up the kingdom of God to all who would enter.
Theeschatological temple of God.Both the OT and Judaism anticipated the rebuilding of the temple inthe future kingdom of God (e.g., Ezek. 40–48; Hag. 2:1–9;1 En. 90:29; 91:3; Jub. 1:17, 29). Jesus hinted that he wasgoing to build such a structure (Matt. 16:18; Mark 14:58; John2:19–22). Pentecost witnessed to the beginning of thefulfillment of that dream in that when the Spirit inhabited thechurch, the eschatological temple was formed (Acts 2:16–36).Other NT writers also perceived that the presence of the Spirit inthe Christian community constituted the new temple of God (1 Cor.3:16–17; 2 Cor. 6:14–7:1; Eph. 2:19–22; seealso Gal. 4:21–31; 1 Pet. 2:4–10). However,that the eschatological temple is not yet complete is evident in thepreceding passages, especially in their emphasis on the need for thechurch to grow toward maturity in Christ, which will be fullyaccomplished only at the parousia (second coming of Christ). In themeantime, Christians, as priests of God, are to perform theirsacrificial service to the glory of God (Rom. 12:1–2; Heb.13:15; 1 Pet. 2:4–10).
Thebride of Christ.The image of marriage is applied to God and Israel in the OT (seeIsa. 54:5–6; 62:5; Hos. 2:7). Similar imagery is applied toChrist and the church in the NT. Christ, the bridegroom, hassacrificially and lovingly chosen the church to be his bride (Eph.5:25–27). Her responsibility during the betrothal period is tobe faithful to him (2 Cor. 11:2; Eph. 5:24). At the parousia theofficial wedding ceremony will take place, and with it the eternalunion of Christ and his wife will be actualized (Rev. 19:7–9;21:1–2).
Thebody of Christ.The body of Christ as a metaphor for the church is unique to thePauline literature and constitutes one of the most significantconcepts therein (Rom. 12:4–5; 1 Cor. 12:12–27; Eph.4:7–16; Col. 1:18). The primary purpose of the metaphor is todemonstrate the interrelatedness of diversity and unity within thechurch, especially with reference to spiritual gifts. The body ofChrist is the last Adam (1 Cor. 15:45), the new humanity of theend time that has appeared in history. However, Paul’s usage ofthe image, like the metaphor of the new temple, indicates that thechurch, as the body of Christ, still has a long way to gospiritually. It is not yet complete.
Sacraments
Atthe heart of the expression of the church’s faith are thesacraments of baptism and the Lord’s Supper. The formersymbolizes entrance into the church, while the latter providesspiritual sustenance for the church.
Baptism.Baptism symbolizes the sinner’s entrance into the church. Threeobservations emerge from the biblical treatment of this sacrament.First, the OT intimated baptism, especially in its association ofrepentance of sin with ablutions (Num.19:18–22; Ps. 51:7; Ezek.36:25; cf. John 3:5). Second, the baptism of John anticipatedChristian baptism. John administered a baptism of repentance inexpectation of the baptism of the Spirit and fire that the Messiahwould exercise (Matt. 3:11 // Luke 3:16). Those who accept Jesusas Messiah experience the baptism of fire and judgment (which may bean allusion to undergoing the great tribulation/messianic woes thatlead into the messianic kingdom). Third, the early church practicedbaptism in imitation of the Lord Jesus (Matt. 3:13–17 //Mark 1:9–11 // Luke 3:21–22; see also John 1:32–34;cf. Matt. 28:19; Acts 2:38; 8:16; Rom. 6:3–6; 1 Cor.1:13–15; Gal. 3:27; Titus 3:5; 1 Pet. 3:21). Thesepassages demonstrate some further truths about baptism: baptism isintimately related to faith in God; baptism identifies the personwith the death and resurrection of Jesus; baptism incorporates theperson into the community of believers.
Lord’sSupper.The other biblical sacrament is the Lord’s Supper. This ritesymbolizes Christ’s spiritual nourishment of his church as itcelebrates the sacred meal. Two basic points emerge from the biblicaldata concerning the Lord’s Supper. First, it was instituted byChrist (Matt. 26:26–29; Mark 14:22–25; Luke 22:15–20;1 Cor. 11:23–25), probably as an adaptation of thePassover meal. If that is the case, then, Jesus will have introducedtwo changes into the Passover seder: he replaced the unleavened breadwith a reference to his body being given for us on the cross; hereplaced the cup of redemption with a reference to his shed blood onthe cross, the basis of the new covenant. Second, the early churchpracticed the Lord’s Supper probably weekly, in conjunctionwith the love feast (see 1 Cor. 11:18–22; cf. Jude 12). Atwofold meaning is attached to the Lord’s Supper by the NTauthors. First, it involves participation in Christ’s salvation(Luke 22:19; 1 Cor. 11:24–25), and in two ways:participating in the Lord’s Supper looks back to the death ofJesus, in which the believer now shares; participating in the Lord’sSupper looks forward to Christ’s return, the culmination pointof the believer’s salvation. Second, the Lord’s Supperinvolves identification with the body of Christ, the community offaith (1 Cor. 10:16–17; 11:27–33).
Worship
Theultimate purpose of the church is to worship God through Christ andin the power of the Holy Spirit (see, e.g., Rev. 4–5). Theearly church first worshiped in the Jerusalem temple (Acts 2:46; 3:1;5:42) as well as in the synagogue (Acts 22:19; cf. John 9:22; James2:2). At the same time, and into the near future, believers met inhomes for worship (Acts 1:13; 2:46; 5:42; cf. Rom. 16:15; Col. 4:15;Philem. 2; 2 John 10; 3 John 1, 6). Although many JewishChristians no doubt continued to worship God on the Sabbath, theestablished time for the church’s worship came to be Sunday,the day of Jesus’ resurrection (Acts 20:7; Rev. 1:10). Theearly church most probably patterned its order of worship after thesynagogue service: praise in prayer (Acts 2:42, 47; 3:1; 1 Thess.1:2; 5:17) and in song (1 Cor. 14:26; Phil. 2:6–11; Col.1:15–20), the expounding of Scripture (Acts 2:42; 6:4; Col.4:16; 1 Thess. 2:13; 1 Tim. 4:13), and almsgiving to theneedy (Acts 2:44–45; 1 Cor. 16:1–2; 2 Cor. 8–9;James 2:15–17).
Serviceand Organization
Fiveobservations emerge from the NT regarding the service andorganization of the early church. First, the ministry of the churchcenters on its usage of spiritual gifts, which are given to believersby God’s grace and for his glory as well as for the good ofothers (Rom. 12:3; Eph. 4:7–16). Second, every believerpossesses a gift of the Spirit (1 Cor. 12:7; Eph. 4:7). Third,it is through the diversity of the gifts that the body of Christmatures and is unified (Rom. 12:4; 1 Cor. 12:12–31; Eph.4:17–18). Fourth, although there was organized leadership inthe NT church, including elders (1 Tim. 3:1–7 [also called“pastors” and “bishops”; see Acts 20:17, 28;1 Pet. 5:1–4]) and deacons (1 Tim. 3:8–13),there does not seem to have been a gap between the “clergy”and the “laity” in the church of the first century;rather, those with the gift of leadership are called to equip all thesaints for the work of the ministry (Eph. 4:7–16). Fifth,spiritual gifts are to be exercised in love (1 Cor. 13).
Jesus Christ is the centerpiece of the Christian Scriptures. The meaning and interpretation of both Testaments is properly grasped only in light of the person and work of Jesus Christ. That is not to say that the Testaments testify to Jesus Christ in the exact same way; they obviously do not, but both Testaments are part of the inscripturated revelation that, in light of the incarnation, proclaims Jesus Christ to be the fullest manifestation of God given to humankind.
Old Testament
According to the Scriptures. The early Christians were adamant that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ happened “according to the Scriptures” (1 Cor. 15:3–4), which meant that these events lined up with Israel’s sacred traditions. On the road to Emmaus the risen Jesus explained to the two travelers the things concerning himself “beginning with Moses and all the Prophets,” in relation to the death and glorification of the Messiah (Luke 24:27). In one of the major Johannine discourses, Jesus tells the Pharisees that the Scriptures “testify about me” (John 5:39). Early Christian authors could find certain key texts that demonstrated the conformity of the Christ-event to the pattern of Israel’s Scriptures, such as Pss. 2; 110; 118; Isa. 53. Yet much of the OT can be understood without mention of Jesus Christ in relation to its own historical context, and there is the danger of overly allegorizing OT texts in order to make them say something about Jesus Christ and the church.
The relationship between the Testaments. The way that the NT authors echo, allude to, quote, and interpret the OT is a complex matter, but at least two points need to be made about the relationship between the two Testaments.
First, the OT anticipates and illuminates the coming of Jesus Christ. “Anticipate” does not mean “predict,” but the law and the prophets foreshadow the offices and identity of Jesus Christ. The offices of prophet, priest, and king in the OT prefigure the ministry of Christ, who is the one who reveals God, intercedes on behalf of humankind, and is the Messiah and Lord. The sacrificial cultus, with the necessity of shedding blood for the removal of sin, prefigures the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ. This is why the law is a “shadow” of the one who was to come (Col. 2:17; Heb. 10:1). “Illuminate” means that certain OT texts, though not referring to Jesus in their historical or literary context, explain aspects of his person and work. This is seen most clearly in the way that the psalms are used in the NT. Texts such as Pss. 2:7; 110:1–4 provided biblical categories that explained the nature of Jesus’ sonship, the quality of his priestly ministry, and his installation as God’s vice-regent.
Second, we should differentiate between prophecy and typology. The prophetic promises in Ezek. 37; Amos 9; and Mic. 4 about a future Davidic king whom God will use to save and restore Israel are genuine prophecies that look forward to a future event yet to be fulfilled. These texts set forth the job description of the Messiah as the renewal and restoration of Israel from bondage and exile. It is unsurprising then that in Acts, James the brother of Jesus could cite Amos 9:11–12 as proof that Gentiles should be accepted into the people of God with the coming of the Messiah (Acts 15:15–18).
Typological interpretation, on the other hand, sees OT persons, places, or events as prototypes or patterns of NT persons, places, or events. For example, in Rom. 5:14 Paul says that Adam is a “type” or “pattern” of the one to come. Similarly, Matthew’s use of Isa. 7:14 in Matt. 1:23 is also typological rather than prophetic. In the context of Isaiah, the promise refers to a child born during the reign of King Ahaz as a sign that the Judean kingdom will survive the Assyrian onslaught. Matthew’s citation does not demand an exact correspondence of events as much as it postulates a correlation of patterns or types between Isaiah’s narrative and the Matthean birth story. The coming of God’s Son, the manifestation of God’s presence, and the rescue of Israel through a child born to a young girl bring to Matthew’s mind Isa. 7 as an obvious prophetic precedent, repeated at a new juncture of redemptive history.
A Christology of the Old Testament. The NT authors interpreted the OT in search of answers to questions pertaining to the identity and ministry of Jesus Christ, the nature of the people of God, and the arrival of the new age. They detected patterns in the OT that were repeated or recapitulated in Jesus’ own person. They proclaimed that the prophetic promises made to Israel had been made good in Jesus Christ, and they found allusions to the various events of his life, death, and exaltation. Jesus and Israel’s Scriptures became a mutually interpretive spiral whereby the Christians began to understand the OT in light of Jesus and understood Jesus in light of the OT. In this canonical setting we can legitimately develop a “Christology of the Old Testament.”
New Testament
The Gospels. The canonical Gospels are four ancient biographies that pay attention to the history and significance of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. They represent a testimony to Jesus and embody the collective memory of his person and actions as they were transmitted and interpreted by Christians in the Greco-Roman world of the mid- to late first century.
All four Gospels follow the same basic outline by variably detailing Jesus’ ministry, passion, and exaltation, and all of them place the story of Jesus in the context of the fulfillment of the story of Israel. At the same time, each Gospel in its plot and portrayal of Jesus remains distinctive in its own right. Yet they are not four different Jesuses, but rather four parallel portraits of Jesus, much like four stained-glass windows or four paintings depict the same person in different ways.
The Gospel of Matthew portrays Jesus as the long-awaited Davidic Messiah of Israel, with a focus on his teaching authority as a type of new Moses. The Gospel of Mark describes Jesus as the powerful Son of God and concurrently as the suffering Son of Man, whose cross reveals the reality of his identity and mission. The Gospel of Luke emphasizes Jesus’ role as an anointed prophet with a special concern for the poor and outcasts and his role as dispenser of the Holy Spirit. Without flattening the distinctive christological shape of each of the Synoptic Gospels, we could say that they focus on Jesus as the proclaimer of the kingdom of God and as king of the very same kingdom.
The Gospel of John has its own set of characteristic emphases in which Jesus’ consciousness of his divine nature and purpose is heightened. Programmatic for the entirety of John’s Gospel is the prologue in 1:1–18 about the “Word [who] became flesh,” which gives a clear theology of incarnation and revelation associated with Jesus’ coming. There is also much material unique to John’s Gospel, such as the “I am” statements that further exposit the nature of Jesus’ person and the climactic confession by Thomas that Jesus is “my Lord and my God” (20:28).
The Gospels indicate that mere knowledge that Jesus died for the purpose of salvation is an insufficient understanding of him. What is also needed, and what they provide, is an understanding of his teachings and his mission in light of Israel’s Scriptures and in view of the sociopolitical situation of Palestine. Jesus came to redeem and renew Israel so that a transformed Israel would transform the world.
Acts. The book of Acts contains the story of the emergence of the early church from Jerusalem to Rome. Even though Acts is a repository of apostolic preaching and plots the beginnings of the Gentile mission, it is the sequel to Luke’s Gospel and is very much the story of Jesus in perfect tense (i.e., a past event with ongoing significance). The most succinct summary of the Christology of Acts is in Peter’s speech in Jerusalem, where he states that “this Jesus” whom they crucified has been made both “Lord and Christ [NIV: “Messiah”]” by God (2:36). In the succeeding narratives emphasis is given to “Jesus is the Christ [NIV: “Messiah”]” (e.g., 9:22; 17:3; 18:5), which is a message pertinent to Jews and Gentiles (20:21).
Paul’s Letters. The Pauline Epistles, although they are situational, pastoral, and not given primarily to christological exposition, still exhibit beliefs about Jesus held by Paul and his Christian contemporaries. The high points of Paul’s Christology can be detected in his use of traditional material such as Col. 1:15–20, which exposits the sufficiency and the supremacy of Christ. Philippians 2:5–11 narrates the story of the incarnation as an example of self-giving love. In 1 Cor. 8:6 Paul offers a Christianized version of the Shema of Deut. 6:4. There is a petition to Jesus as “Come, Lord!” in 1 Cor. 16:22. Paul can also refer to Jesus as God in Rom. 9:5 (although the grammar is ambiguous). For Paul, Jesus is both the “heavenly man” (1 Cor. 15:47–49) and the Son to come from heaven (1 Thess. 1:10). This interest in the divine Son of God does not mean that Paul was ignorant of or disinterested in the life and teachings of Jesus. Elsewhere he implies knowledge of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Rom. 14:14; 1 Cor. 7:10–11) and refers to the incarnation (e.g., 2 Cor. 8:9; Col. 2:9).
A number of titles are used to describe Jesus in Paul’s letters, including “Lord” and “Christ/Messiah” (and variations such as “Lord Jesus Christ” and “Christ Jesus”), “Savior,” and “Seed of David” (Rom. 1:3). But probably the most apt expression of Jesus’ nature according to Paul is “Son of God” (e.g., Rom. 1:4; 2 Cor. 1:19; Gal. 2:20). This language of sonship suggests that Jesus is the means of God’s salvation and glory and is the special agent through whom the Father acts. Referring to Jesus as “Son” also underscores Jesus’ unique relationship to God the Father and his unique role in executing the ordained plan of salvation for the elect.
We might also add that Paul provides the building blocks of what would later become a full-blown trinitarian theology, such as in the benediction of 2 Cor. 13:14 and in general exhortations about the gospel (1 Cor. 2:1–5). It must be emphasized that Paul’s Christology cannot be separated from his eschatology, soteriology, and ecclesiology. The sending of God’s Son (see Rom. 8:3; Gal. 4:4–5) into the world marks the coming of redemption and salvation through the cross and resurrection of the Son, and these are appropriated by faith. Those who believe become members of the restored Israel, the renewed Adamic race, and constituent members of the body of Christ. To that we might add the experiential element of Paul’s Christology as Jesus is known in the experience of salvation, prayer, and worship (e.g., Gal. 2:19–20).
The General Letters. The General Letters (also called the Catholic Epistles) provide a further array of images and explorations into the person and work of Jesus Christ and how they relate to the community of faith. The message of Hebrews is essentially “Jesus is better!” He is better than the angels and better than Moses; he is a better high priest; he offers a better sacrifice, establishes a better law, and instigates a better covenant. This letter is a sermonic exhortation against falling away from the faith (e.g., 2:1–4), and toward that end the author sets before his readers the magnificence of Jesus Christ, who is “the same yesterday and today and forever” (13:8).
James has little christological content and focuses instead on exhortations that bear remarkable resemblance to the teachings of Jesus from the Gospels. Even so, the letter makes passing reference to the “glorious Lord Jesus Christ” (2:1; cf. 1:1).
Central to 1 Peter is the glory and salvation that will be manifested at the revelation of Jesus Christ at his second coming (1:5, 7, 9, 13; 4:13; 5:1). Much attention is given to Jesus’ sacrificial death as a lamb (1:19), the example of his suffering (2:21–23; 4:1–2, 13), and the substitutionary nature of his death (2:24; 3:18). He is the Shepherd and Overseer of the souls of Christians (2:25). Peter writes this to encourage congregations in Asia Minor living under adverse conditions, and he sets before them the pattern of Jesus as a model for their own journey.
In 2 Peter we find a mix of Jewish eschatological concepts and Hellenistic religious language, with the author seeking to defend the apostolic gospel in a pagan culture. Jesus is the source of knowledge (1:2, 8; 2:20) and righteousness (1:1). Much emphasis is given to the coming kingdom of Jesus Christ (1:11, 16; 3:10). Jesus is the sustainer and renewer of the church and also the coming judge of the entire world.
Similar themes can be found in Jude, which is addressed to a group of believers who have been infiltrated by false teachers promoting licentiousness. Jude declares the infiltrators to be condemned and calls on the believers to hold fast to the faith. Jesus is the “Sovereign and Lord” (v. 4), Jesus saved people out of Egypt during the exodus (v. 5 [but see marginal notes on the variant reading “Lord”]), the second coming of Jesus will mark the revelation of his “mercy” (v. 21), and the benediction ascribes “glory, majesty, power and authority” to God through Jesus (v. 25). Most characteristic of all is the emphasis upon Jesus/God as the one who keeps the believers in the grip of his saving power (vv. 1, 21, 23).
The Letters of John take up where the Gospel of John left off, focusing on Jesus as the incarnate Word of God. The first of the three Johannine Epistles appears to have been written in a context where a community of Christians was being pressured by Jews to deny that Jesus is the Messiah (2:22) and also by dissident docetists to deny that Jesus had a physical body (4:2; 5:6). The major focus, however, is on Jesus as the Son of God (1:3, 7; 2:23; 3:8, 23; 4:9–10, 15; 5:11) and the incarnation of God’s very own truth and love (3:16; cf. 2 John 3).
Revelation. The Christology of the book of Revelation is best summed up in the opening description of Jesus as “him who is, and who was, and who is to come,” which underscores the lordship of Jesus over the past, present, and future. John then describes Jesus with the threefold titles “the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth” (1:4–5). In many ways, the story and Christology of Revelation are paradoxical. Jesus is both the victim of Roman violence and the victor over human evil. Jesus is the suffering “Lamb of God” and the powerful “Lion of the tribe of Judah.” In Rev. 4–5 we are given a picture of the worship in heaven and the enthronement of Jesus, and yet the realities on earth are a dearth of heavenly goodness, with persecution and apostasy rampant (Rev. 1–3). This tension continues until the final revelation of Jesus, when the heavenly Lord returns to bring the goodness and power of heaven to transform the perils of the earth and bring his people into the new Jerusalem.
Summary
The primary fixtures of a biblical Christology are (1) Jesus Christ is the promised deliverer intimated in Israel’s Scriptures, whose identity and mission are anticipated and illuminated by the law and the prophets; (2) the man Jesus of Nazareth is identified with the risen and exalted Lord Jesus Christ; and (3) Jesus participates in the very identity and being of God. See also Jesus Christ.
The territory linking the Balkans with the Greek Peninsula.Though its borders shifted through its history, Macedonia stood northof Thessaly and mainland Greece, east of Epirus, and west of Thrace.Its topography is dominated by mountains and coastal plains along theThermaic Gulf and northern shore of the Aegean Sea. The name“Macedonia” comes from a Greek word referring to “tallones” or “highlanders.”
Cultureand Language
Ethnically,the Macedonians were composed of various groups, including Dorians,Illyrians, and Greeks. Macedonians were distinct from but related tothe Greeks. Hesiod, an early Greek poet (c. 700 BC), describedMacedonia as a “cousin” of the Greeks. To other earlyGreek writers, the Macedonians were “barbarians.”AlexanderI (r. 498–454 BC) embraced the Greek connectionto Macedonia by claiming descent from the hero Heracles. After acourt determined his claims to be true, he was permitted toparticipate in the Olympic games, an honor reserved only for Greeks.The Macedonians and the Greeks held similar religious beliefs, asboth worshiped the twelve Olympian gods in similar ways. In fact,Mount Olympus is located in Macedonia. Macedonian artwork illustratedthese shared religious beliefs as it expressed themes from Greekmythology.
TheMacedonian language was a Greek dialect with numerous Phrygian andIllyrian loanwords and elements. To combat the divisive effect ofnumerous Greek dialects, including Macedonian, Alexander the Greatspoke and spread Koine, or common, Greek. In fact, Alexander’suse of Koine Greek was the single greatest factor for the NT beingwritten in Greek.
AlthoughMacedonia had been on the fringe of Greece geographically andculturally, the Macedonians and the Greeks shared much in the way oflanguage, culture, and religion. Especially from the time ofPhilipII (r. 359–336 BC), the Macedonians embraced Greekeducation and philosophy. Alexander the Great, a student of the Greekphilosopher Aristotle, was the product of a combined Greco-Macedonianculture. Through his conquests, Alexander spread his blendedGreco-Macedonian culture, also known as Hellenism, throughout theEast, where the populace would speak Koine Greek, worship Greek gods,mimic Greek architecture, build Greek-styled cities, educate theiryoung in gymnasiums, and reexamine the world through Greekphilosophy. Differences between Macedonians and Greeks were furthermuted by exposure to much more distinctive Egyptian and Mesopotamiancultures. In the NT, “Greek” was less a nationalitydesignation (Acts 20:2) and more of a cultural designation (John12:20; Acts 14:1). Even Jews could be “Greek.”
History
Accordingto Herodotus, around 650 BC PerdiccasI, the first in theMacedonian list of kings, established the Argead dynasty, whichlasted until Alexander the Great. During the Persian invasions (c.480 BC), the Macedonians cooperated with the Persians, but they alsosecretly provided supplies to the Greeks. However, it would bethrough the Macedonians that the Greeks would achieve vengeanceagainst the Persians. PhilipII would first unite the rivalGreek city-states at the battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. AfterPhilip’s assassination, Alexander led one of the greatestcampaigns in history to completely conquer the Persian Empire, whichhad stretched from Egypt to India (1Macc. 1:1–7). BecauseAlexander had no heir, following his death the massive Macedonianempire dissolved into civil war among factions led by his formergenerals. Ultimately the rule of Macedonia and Greece fell toAntipater until his death in 319 BC. Years of conflict led to theestablishment of the Antigonid dynasty, which lasted until the Romaninvasion. PhilipV won the first Macedonian war (212–205BC) against Rome, but subsequent wars with Rome led to Macedoniabeing divided into four republics in 168 BC (1Macc. 8:5).Twenty years later Rome annexed Macedonia, and in 146 BC Rome madeGreece a protectorate administered from Macedonia.
DuringRome’s own civil wars, many of the battles were fought inGreece and Macedonia. For example, at the battle of Philippi in 41BC, Octavian defeated Brutus and Cassius, the assassins of JuliusCaesar. In 27 BC Octavian, later known as Augustus, turned Macedoniainto a senatorial province and separated it from Achaia. In AD 15Tiberius combined Macedonia, Achaia, and Moesia into one largeimperial province. However, in AD 44 Claudius again separatedMacedonia from Achaia and made them senatorial provinces. This wasthe political status when Paul traveled through “Macedonia andAchaia” during his missionary journeys (Acts 19:21; Rom. 15:26;1Thess. 1:7).
TheJourneys of Paul
Fromthe time that Paul received his vision of a Macedonian man callinghim to proclaim the gospel (Acts 16:9), Macedonia played asignificant role in Paul’s journeys and the early church. Heestablished three churches there and wrote three letters to them(Philippians and 1–2Thessalonians). Several of Paul’scompanions were Macedonians, including Sopater, Aristarchus,Secundus, and Jason (Acts 17:4–7; 20:4). In Paul’scorrespondence he spoke of Macedonia at least sixteen times in sixdifferent letters. Answering the Macedonian call during his secondmissionary journey, Paul arrived in Philippi, which was “aRoman colony and a leading city of that district of Macedonia”(Acts 16:12). There he led Lydia, the first known European convert,to the gospel. After casting an evil spirit out from a slave girl,Paul and Silas were imprisoned, and they led the Philippian jailerand his family to the gospel (Acts 16:16–40). Lydia and thePhilippian church generously supported Paul’s ministry and thechurch in Jerusalem (Rom. 15:26–27; 2Cor. 8:1–5;Phil. 4:15–17).
Paulthen traveled along the paved Via Egnatia to Thessalonica, where heestablished a church composed of “some” Jews and a “greatmany” Greeks and leading women (Acts 17:4). He stayed there atleast three Sabbaths before opposition drove him to Berea (17:1–9),where many examined the Scriptures and more eagerly accepted thegospel (17:11). From Berea, he left Macedonia for Athens and Corinthin Achaia. Paul later returned to Macedonia during his thirdmissionary journey (20:1–6).
A Pharisee commissioned by Jesus Christ to preach the gospelto Gentiles. His Jewish name was “Saul” (Acts 9:4; 13:9),but he preferred using his Roman name, especially when he signed hisletters. Actually, “Paul” was his last name. Romancitizens had three names; the last name was the family name, calledthe “cognomen.” We do not know Paul’s first andmiddle Roman name, but his last name is derived from the Latin Paulus(Sergius Paulus, the proconsul of Cyprus, had the same family name[13:7]). Most people were known and called by their last name becausegroup identity was more important in the first-century Mediterraneanworld than individual recognition. For example, when speakingpublicly, Paul did not use his favorite self-designations, “apostleto the Gentiles” or “slave of Christ Jesus”;instead, he identified himself as a Jew, a citizen of Tarsus, astudent of Gamaliel (21:39; 22:3). His social identity was embeddedin his ethnicity, his nativity, his religion. However, even thosecategories cannot adequately describe Paul. He was a Jew but also aRoman citizen. Tarsus was his home (11:25–26), but he claimedthat he was brought up in Jerusalem. He spoke Aramaic but wrote Greekletters. He was once a Pharisee but then preached a circumcision-freegospel to Gentiles. In many respects, Paul is an enigma. Who was he?What did he believe? Why did he think he had to leave his previouslife in Judaism to become the apostle to the Gentiles? Why is he oneof the major contributors to the NT even though he was not a followerof the historical Jesus?
Paul’sLife
Paulas a converted Pharisee.Paul spent the first half of his life as a Pharisee. The Phariseeswere a Jewish sect that emphasized obedience to the law of God as themeans of maintaining holiness. Practically all Jews believed thatthey should obey the law, but what made the Pharisees unique wastheir emphasis on applying all commandments, even those intended onlyfor Levites and priests, to all Jews. For example, priests wererequired to keep certain rituals of hand washing before they ate(Lev. 22:1–9; cf. Exod 30:19–21; 40:31–32). So thePharisees extended these requirements to all Israel in order to showGod how serious they were about obeying the law (Mark 7:3–4).Obedience was crucial to God’s blessing; disobedience broughtGod’s curse. Therefore, the Pharisees established manytraditions, going beyond the letter of the law, to ensure compliance.To what extent the Jewish people followed the example of thePharisees is debated, but certainly it appeared to the people that noone was more zealous for God and his law than the Pharisees—azeal that would compel them to join in the stoning of obviousoffenders (Lev. 24:14; Acts 7:58). As a Pharisee, Paul’s zealfor the law led him to persecute Jewish Christians, not only inJerusalem but also outside Israel, in places such as Damascus (Acts8:3; 9:1–3; 22:4–5; Gal. 1:13–14; Phil. 3:6).Neither Paul nor Luke explains what the Pharisees found objectionableabout this Jewish movement known as “the Way.” In fact,Paul’s teacher, Gamaliel, advised the Sanhedrin to ignoremembers of the Way and not make trouble for them (Acts5:34–39)—advice obviously not taken by Paul. Perhaps itwas Jesus’ reputation as a lawbreaker or the fact that he haddied a cursed death according to the law that convinced Paul toimprison Jesus’ disciples (Deut. 21:23). Whatever the reason,Paul saw his role as persecutor of the church as the ultimate proofof his blamelessness under the law (Phil. 3:6).
AfterChrist appeared to Paul on the road to Damascus, everything changed:his life, his mission, his worldview (Acts 9:3–30). Paul leftPharisaism and immediately began preaching the gospel (Gal. 1:11–17).Those whom he persecuted were now friends. His zeal for the law wasreplaced by his zeal for Christ. It was a radical reversal. The rumorspread quickly: “The man who formerly persecuted us is nowpreaching the faith he once tried to destroy” (Gal. 1:23). Whythe sudden change? Some think that it is what Paul saw—theglorified Messiah—that changed his perspective. Theresurrection of Christ turned the curse of the cross into a blessing,death into life, shame into honor. The appearance of Christ(Christophany) was a revelation, an apocalypse, an end-of-the-worldevent for Paul. Old things passed away; everything became new (2Cor.5:17). What was divided under the old age of the law—Jews andGentiles, male and female, slave and free—was united in Christ.Other scholars emphasize it is what Paul heard during theChristophany that changed the course of his life. Paul interpretedChrist’s charge, “Go, preach to the Gentiles,” as aprophetic calling, perhaps even fulfilling Isaiah’s end-timevision of salvation of the whole world (Isa. 49:1–7; Gal.1:15–16). Thus, Paul’s westward push to take the gospelto the coastlands (Spain) was by divine design (Rom. 15:15–24).God commissioned Saul the Pharisee of the Jews to become Paul theapostle to the Gentiles because “the culmination of the ageshas come” (1Cor. 10:11).
Paul’sministry.By our best estimates, Paul spent about thirty years preaching thegospel of Jesus Christ (AD 34–67)—a ministry that can bedivided roughly into three decades. The first decade of his ministry(AD 34–46) has been called the “silent years,” aswe have few details from Acts or the Pauline Epistles about hisactivities. For example, we know that he preached in Damascus for awhile and spent some time in Arabia (a total of three years [Gal.1:17–18]). He made a quick trip to Jerusalem to meet Peter andJames the brother of Jesus. Then he returned home to Tarsus,evidently preaching there for several years, until Barnabas broughthim to Antioch in Syria to help with the ministry of this mixedcongregation of Jews and Gentiles (Acts 9:26–30; 11:25–26).In the second decade of his ministry (AD 46–59), Paul spentmost of his life on the road, an itinerant ministry of preaching thegospel and planting churches from Cyprus to Corinth. For most of thethird decade (AD 59–67), Paul ministered the gospel fromprison, spending over two years imprisoned in Caesarea, another twoto three years in a Roman prison (Acts ends here), released for abrief time (two years?) before his final arrest and imprisonment inRome, where, according to church tradition, he was executed.
Duringhis itinerant ministry, Paul traveled Roman roads that led him tofree cities (Ephesus, Thessalonica, Athens) and Roman colonies(Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe, Troas, Philippi, Corinth).Founding churches in urban centers afforded Paul more opportunitiesfor ministry and for his work of making and repairing tents.Traveling within the borders of the Roman Empire also provided abetter chance of protection as a citizen. At first, Paul and Barnabascovered familiar territory: Cyprus (Barnabas’s home region) andAnatolia (Paul’s home region). Then, with successive journeysPaul and other missionary companions branched out to Asia Minor,Macedonia, and Achaia. Some of the towns that Paul visited were smalland provincial (Derbe, Lystra); others were major cities of greateconomic and intellectual commerce (Ephesus, Corinth, Athens). In themidst of such cultural diversity, Paul found receptive ears among avariety of ethnic groups: Gauls, Phrygians and Lycaonians, Greeks,Romans, and Jews. Previously, Paul’s Gentile converts hadworshiped many gods (local, ethnic, and imperial), offered sacrificesat many shrines and temples, and joined in all the religiousfestivals (often involving immoral and ungodly practices). Afterbelieving the gospel, Paul’s predominantly Gentile churchesturned from their idolatrous ways to serve “the living and trueGod” (1Thess. 1:9). Their exclusive devotion to one Godquickly led to economic and political problems, for both Paul’sconverts and the cities of their residence. No more offerings forpatron gods, no more support for local synagogues or the imperialcult—Paul’s converts were often persecuted for theirnewly found faith by local religious guilds (idol makers!) and civicleaders courting Roman favor (Acts 17:6–9; 19:23–41;Phil. 1:27–30; 1Thess. 2:14–16). Indeed, Paul oftenwas run out of town as a troublemaker who preached a message thatthreatened both the Jewish and the Roman ways of life (Acts 16:19–24;Phil. 3:17–4:1). It is no wonder that Paul’s activitieseventually landed him in a Roman prison. It was only a matter of timebefore his reputation as a “lawbreaker” caught up withhim (Acts 21:21). But that did not stop Paul. Whether as a prisoneror a free man, Paul proclaimed the gospel of Jesus Christ until theday he died.
Paul’sGospel
Thesources of Paul’s gospel.Paul ministered his entire life without the benefit of literaryGospels. Most scholars think that the earliest Gospel, Mark, waswritten about the time that Paul was martyred. Since Paul was not adisciple of Jesus and probably never heard him speak or witnessed hisearthly ministry, how did Paul know what to preach? Where did Paulget his gospel? Paul mentioned four sources. First, he received oraltraditions about Jesus from other Christians (1Cor. 15:1–7).For him, hearing what happened during the Lord’s Supper fromthose who followed Jesus was the same as receiving it from the Lord(1Cor. 11:23). Second, the Hebrew Scriptures were a majorsource of Paul’s gospel (Acts 17:2). Illumined by the HolySpirit, Paul saw the gospel proclaimed in the law (Rom. 10:6–8)and predicted by the prophets (15:12). Third, in addition to theChristophany on the road to Damascus, Paul experienced revelations ofChrist as epiphanies of the gospel (Acts 18:9–10; 26:18). Thisgave Paul the authority to claim that he received his gospelpreeminently from Christ (Gal. 1:1, 16; 2:2). Fourth, Paul saw lifeexperiences as a resource for the gospel (2Cor. 12:7–10).As Paul made sense of what happened to him, he shared these insightswith his converts as proof that “Christ is speaking through me”(2Cor. 13:3–4). Indeed, Paul’s ways of doing thegospel were to be taught in all the churches as gospel truth (1Cor.4:17), because as far as Paul was concerned, the gospel of JesusChrist was the gospel according to Paul.
Thedeath and resurrection of Jesus Christ.The center of Paul’s gospel was the death and resurrection ofJesus. The essence of what he preached was “Jesus Christ andhim crucified” (1Cor. 2:2). Furthermore, the resurrectionof Christ was indispensable to the gospel that Paul proclaimed.Without the resurrection, Paul argued, faith in Christ would be vainbecause believers would still be dead in their sins with no hope oflife after death—the resurrection of their bodies (1Cor.15:13–19). Exploring the center, Paul used several metaphorsdrawn from everyday life to explain the significance of Christ’swork on the cross. Paul used legal terms such as“justification”/“righteousness,” “law,”and “condemnation” when he explained how sinners arejustified by faith in Christ. Paul described the implications ofChrist’s death in religious terms, using words such as“sacrifice,” “sin,”“propitiation”/“expiation” (NIV: “sacrificeof atonement”), and “temple,” which would makesense to both Jews and Gentiles. He also borrowed words from theworld of commerce, such as “redemption,” “purchase,”and “slave,” especially when he emphasized the obedienceof Christ, of Paul, of all believers. He even used military terms todescribe how God turned enemies into friends through the cross: the“reconciliation” that came through the “victory”of Christ’s death when he “disarmed” the “powers.”
Paulalso relied heavily on Jewish theology as he sorted out the work ofGod in Christ Jesus. Paul was a monotheist but attributed divinestatus to Jesus (Phil. 2:6). Paul believed that Israel was God’schosen people but maintained that his Gentile converts were theelect, calling them the “Israel of God” (Gal. 6:16). Paulaffirmed the law was holy but argued that holiness came only throughthe indwelling Spirit (Rom. 7:12; 1Thess. 4:7–8). Paulbelieved that the Messiah’s appearance would bring about theend of the world but looked forward to Christ’s parousia(“appearance”) at the end of time. In other words, theperson and work of Christ formed the lens through which Paulinterpreted the Bible and made sense of the world. Indeed, Paul’sgospel was built on a foundation of Jewish doctrine, Jesus tradition,and religious experience.
Away of life.For Paul, the gospel was more than a set of beliefs; it was a way oflife. To believe in Christ Jesus not only entailed accepting hissacrificial death as atonement for sin but also meant followingChrist by taking up his cross—a life of sacrifice. Paulbelieved that he experienced the cross of Christ every time heendured hardship, every time he was persecuted, every time hesuffered loss (Phil. 3:7–11). And it was in the crucified lifethat Paul found resurrection power (3:12–21). The gospel wasthe divine paradigm for living. What happened to Christ is whathappened to Paul, and what happened to Paul is what would happen toall his converts. “Follow my example,” he wrote, “asI follow the example of Christ” (1Cor. 11:1). In fact,Paul believed that all Christians were constantly being conformed tothe image of God’s Son (Rom. 8:29). He was convinced that Godwould finish what he had started: the perfecting of his convertsuntil the day of Christ’s return and the resurrection of everybeliever (Phil. 1:6; 3:21). The only thing that his converts neededto imitate Christ was the indwelling power of his Spirit (the HolySpirit), the example of Paul’s life, and a letter every now andthen from their apostle.
Paul’sLetters
Paulsent letters to churches and individuals to inform his converts ofhis situation, offer encouragement, answer questions, and addressproblems that developed while he was away. There are thirteen lettersof Paul in the New Testament. Nine were written to churches or groupsof churches (Romans; 1 and 2Corinthians; Galatians; Ephesians;Philippians; Colossions; 1 and 2Thessalonians) and four toindividuals (1 and 2Timothy; Titus; Philemon).
Paulthe apostle.In most of his letters, Paul was on the defense: defending hisapostleship, defending his itinerary, defending his gospel.Evidently, Paul’s opponents questioned whether Paul deserved tobe called “apostle,” since he had not followed thehistorical Jesus and used to persecute the church (1Cor.15:8–9). According to Acts, when the first Christians decidedto replace Judas Iscariot as one of the twelve apostles, theyestablished the following criterion: the candidate must have been afollower of Jesus from his baptism to his ascension (Acts 1:21–22).Two men were qualified; one was chosen by divine lot, implying thatthere could be only twelve. Did the early church’s decision torecognize only twelve apostles define apostleship once and for all?Paul did not think so. He recognized the significance of the Twelve,but he believed that there were other apostles as well: Bar-na-bas,James the brother of Jesus, and himself (1Cor. 15:5–9;Gal. 2:8–9). Paul knew that there were false apostles causingtrouble in the churches (2Cor. 11:13), some even carrying“letters of recommendation” (2Cor. 3:1). But onlythose who had seen the resurrected Christ and were commissioned byhim to preach the gospel were legitimate apostles (1Cor.9:1–2). The signs of apostleship were evident when thecommission was fulfilled: planting churches and dispensing the Spirit(2Cor. 3:2; 12:12; Gal. 3:5). Of all people, Paul’sconverts should have never questioned the authority of their apostle.They were the proof of his apostleship.
AlthoughPaul never mentioned this, the fact that he sent letters is evidenceof his apostleship. Paul believed that the obedience of Gentileconverts was his responsibility, a confirmation of his calling (Rom.15:18–19). So he sent letters to make sure that they werekeeping the traditions that he had taught them (1Cor. 11:2).Sometimes, all that his readers needed was a little encouragement tokeep up the good work (most of 1Thessalonians and 2Timothyare exhortations to keep doing what they were doing) or a moredetailed explanation of what they already knew (Ephesians,Philippians, 1Timothy, Titus). Many times, Paul sent letters tocorrect major problems within his churches. For example, some of theGalatians were submitting to the law and being circumcised (Gal.4:21; 5:2–7). Some of the Colossians were involved in strangepractices of asceticism and angel worship (Col. 2:16–23). Someof the Thessalonians had quit working for a living (2Thess.3:6–15). And, worst of all, the Corinthians were plagued withall kinds of problems: factions, lawsuits, incest, prostitutes,idolatry. Some of the Corinthians were also espousing falsetheological ideas, such as denying the resurrection (1Cor.15:12). Other churches had problems sorting out Paul’s theologyas well. For example, the Thessalonians were confused about lifeafter death, end times, and the return of Christ (1Thess.4:13–18; 2Thess. 2:1–12), and the Romans needed,among other things, instruction about the role of Israel in the lastdays (Rom. 9:1–11:32). The fact that Paul felt obliged to sendhis lengthiest letter, loaded with some of his most sophisticatedtheological arguments, to the church in Rome, which he did not startand had not visited, says much about the way Paul saw the authorityof his apostleship. Because he was the apostle to the Gentiles, Pauloperated as if he were the mentor of all churches with Gentilemembers.
Churchunity.Paul believed in the unity of the church. Indeed, he used severalmetaphors to help his readers see why it was important that one Lordand one faith should form one church. He described the church as atemple (1Cor. 3:16–17), a family (Eph. 2:19), and abody—his favorite metaphor (1Cor. 12:12–27). Hewarned of desecrating the temple with divisive teaching and immoralbehavior (1Cor. 3:1–6:20). He rebuked his children whenthey refused to obey him as their father (1Cor. 3:14–21)or mother (Gal. 4:19–20). And, more than any other analogy,Paul likened the church to a human body that could be maimed byprejudice and threatened by sickness (1Cor. 11:17–34). Tohim, a dismembered body was an unholy body; a segregated church meantthat Christ was divided (1Cor. 1:10–13). The ethnic,religious, social, political, geographical, and economic differencesevident in one of the most diverse collections of people in thefirst-century Mediterranean world made Paul’s vision of aunified church appear like an impossible dream. Yet the apostle tothe Gentiles believed that the unity of the body of Christ wasindispensable not only to his mission but also to the gospel of JesusChrist (Eph. 4:1–6). So he collected a relief offering amonghis Gentile converts to help poor Jewish Christians in Jerusalem(Rom. 15:26–27). He taught masters to treat their slaves likesiblings (Philem. 16). And he solicited Romans to fund his missiontrip to Spain (Rom. 15:24). As far as Paul was concerned, the gospelbrought down every wall that divides humanity because all people needsalvation in Christ (Eph. 2:14–18).
Conclusion
Paulwas a tentmaker, a missionary, a writer, a preacher, a teacher, atheologian, an evangelist, a mentor, a prophet, a miracle worker, aprisoner, and a martyr. His life story reads like the tale of threedifferent men: a devout Pharisee, a tireless traveler, an ambitiouswriter. He knew the Scriptures better than did most people. He sawmore of the world than did most merchants. He wrote some of thelongest letters known at that time. To his converts, he was afaithful friend. To his opponents, he was an irrepressibletroublemaker. But, according to Paul, he was nothing more or lessthan the man whom God had called through Jesus Christ to take thegospel to the ends of the earth.
The words “persecute” and “persecution”refer to the act of pursuing and wrongly afflicting someone. Theterms occur mostly in the NT, where typically they refer topersecution of Jesus’ followers. Their persecution takesvarying forms, such as false legal accusations, imprisonment, orexecution.
Persecutionthroughout the Bible.Within the NT, the English words “persecute” and“persecution” are, with few exceptions, translations ofthe Greek verb diōkō or the related noun diōgmos.However, diōkō can also mean simply “to pursue,followafter,” such as when the object of pursuit is righteousness orpeace (Rom. 9:30; 1Tim. 6:11; 2Tim. 2:22; 1Pet.3:11). The term is used in this same sense in the LXX (Gen. 14:15;Deut. 16:20; 19:6; 2Sam. 22:38). The Greek words weretranslated into English as “persecute” or “persecution”when the translators thought that the context also showed wrongfulaffliction. The corresponding Hebrew word radap shares this meaning.
Inthis sense of wrongful affliction, persecution occurs throughout theBible. The Egyptian army pursues the people of Israel to the Red Sea(Exod. 14:8; Neh. 9:11). On two occasions, the people want to stonethe prophet Moses to death (Exod. 17:3–4; Num. 14:10). Saulhunts David (1Sam. 23:25; 24:14; 26:18). Saul wrongly slays theGibeonites out of a sense of patriotism (1Sam. 21:1–2).Jezebel kills God’s prophets (1Kings 18:13). The prophetUriah is slain (Jer. 26:23), and the prophet Jeremiah is incarcerated(Jer. 38:6–9). Isaiah, Ezekiel, and other prophets are stronglyopposed, suggesting persecution (2Chron. 36:16; Isa. 1:2–6;Ezek. 2:3–4; 3:7–9; Acts 7:52). Daniel is cast to thelions (Dan. 6:16). A king’s decree allows execution of all Jewsfor holding the laws of God above the king’s commands,indicating pagan religious hostility (Esther 3). Pagan hostility isshown by the later deaths of many Jews in the religious persecutiondescribed in 1Maccabees and in the first-century uprisings inEgypt described by the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria.
Persecutionin the New Testament.In the NT, persecution begins with the imprisonment and beheading ofJohn the Baptist (Mark 6:16–18; Josephus, Ant. 18.116–19).Jesus is accused by the religious authorities and eventually is triedand executed by Pilate. The religious authorities later flog Jesus’apostles for teaching about him (Acts 5:40). The disciple Stephen issoon accused by false witnesses, tried, and executed by stoning(7:59–60). At this time, Saul (Paul) of Tarsus drags men andwomen from the Jerusalem church off to prison by authority from thechief priests. Saul has them beaten, and at their execution he castsvotes against them (8:3; 22:4, 5, 19; 26:10). After this, Herodexecutes Jesus’ disciple James (12:2). Saul (Paul) converts,and then he suffers threats, beatings, stoning, and prison (Acts13:50; 14:5, 19; 16:22–35; 24:27; 2Cor. 11:23–25).Disciples in Macedonia and Achaia suffer; some Hebrew-speakingdisciples suffer imprisonment and property seizure; and somedisciples in Asia Minor die as martyrs (2Cor. 1:6; 1Thess.1:6–7; Heb. 10:34; Rev. 2:8–13). Pagan persecution ofChristians continued for nearly three centuries, sometimes far moreseverely, according to records compiled by Eusebius (Hist. eccl.2.25; 3.17–19, 32–33; 4.8, 13, 15; 5.1–2; 6.1, 4,41–42; 8.2–3, 7–13). Persecution was sporadic,often beginning with slander or legal accusations. It occurred inmany regions, with leaders especially suffering. Records ofpersecution survived haphazardly.
Jesussays that we are to love and do good to our enemies and pray for ourpersecutors (Matt. 5:44; Luke 6:27). While being crucified, Jesusaccordingly prays, “Father, forgive them” (Luke 23:34;cf. Acts 7:60). Preparing for arrest, Jesus warns his disciples topray to avoid temptation, and he himself prays (Matt. 26:41). BothJesus and Paul say that believers will be persecuted (Matt. 24:9;1Thess. 3:4; 2Tim. 3:12), but God gives strength inpersecution (Acts 14:22; 2Cor.12:10).
The words “persecute” and “persecution”refer to the act of pursuing and wrongly afflicting someone. Theterms occur mostly in the NT, where typically they refer topersecution of Jesus’ followers. Their persecution takesvarying forms, such as false legal accusations, imprisonment, orexecution.
Persecutionthroughout the Bible.Within the NT, the English words “persecute” and“persecution” are, with few exceptions, translations ofthe Greek verb diōkō or the related noun diōgmos.However, diōkō can also mean simply “to pursue,followafter,” such as when the object of pursuit is righteousness orpeace (Rom. 9:30; 1Tim. 6:11; 2Tim. 2:22; 1Pet.3:11). The term is used in this same sense in the LXX (Gen. 14:15;Deut. 16:20; 19:6; 2Sam. 22:38). The Greek words weretranslated into English as “persecute” or “persecution”when the translators thought that the context also showed wrongfulaffliction. The corresponding Hebrew word radap shares this meaning.
Inthis sense of wrongful affliction, persecution occurs throughout theBible. The Egyptian army pursues the people of Israel to the Red Sea(Exod. 14:8; Neh. 9:11). On two occasions, the people want to stonethe prophet Moses to death (Exod. 17:3–4; Num. 14:10). Saulhunts David (1Sam. 23:25; 24:14; 26:18). Saul wrongly slays theGibeonites out of a sense of patriotism (1Sam. 21:1–2).Jezebel kills God’s prophets (1Kings 18:13). The prophetUriah is slain (Jer. 26:23), and the prophet Jeremiah is incarcerated(Jer. 38:6–9). Isaiah, Ezekiel, and other prophets are stronglyopposed, suggesting persecution (2Chron. 36:16; Isa. 1:2–6;Ezek. 2:3–4; 3:7–9; Acts 7:52). Daniel is cast to thelions (Dan. 6:16). A king’s decree allows execution of all Jewsfor holding the laws of God above the king’s commands,indicating pagan religious hostility (Esther 3). Pagan hostility isshown by the later deaths of many Jews in the religious persecutiondescribed in 1Maccabees and in the first-century uprisings inEgypt described by the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria.
Persecutionin the New Testament.In the NT, persecution begins with the imprisonment and beheading ofJohn the Baptist (Mark 6:16–18; Josephus, Ant. 18.116–19).Jesus is accused by the religious authorities and eventually is triedand executed by Pilate. The religious authorities later flog Jesus’apostles for teaching about him (Acts 5:40). The disciple Stephen issoon accused by false witnesses, tried, and executed by stoning(7:59–60). At this time, Saul (Paul) of Tarsus drags men andwomen from the Jerusalem church off to prison by authority from thechief priests. Saul has them beaten, and at their execution he castsvotes against them (8:3; 22:4, 5, 19; 26:10). After this, Herodexecutes Jesus’ disciple James (12:2). Saul (Paul) converts,and then he suffers threats, beatings, stoning, and prison (Acts13:50; 14:5, 19; 16:22–35; 24:27; 2Cor. 11:23–25).Disciples in Macedonia and Achaia suffer; some Hebrew-speakingdisciples suffer imprisonment and property seizure; and somedisciples in Asia Minor die as martyrs (2Cor. 1:6; 1Thess.1:6–7; Heb. 10:34; Rev. 2:8–13). Pagan persecution ofChristians continued for nearly three centuries, sometimes far moreseverely, according to records compiled by Eusebius (Hist. eccl.2.25; 3.17–19, 32–33; 4.8, 13, 15; 5.1–2; 6.1, 4,41–42; 8.2–3, 7–13). Persecution was sporadic,often beginning with slander or legal accusations. It occurred inmany regions, with leaders especially suffering. Records ofpersecution survived haphazardly.
Jesussays that we are to love and do good to our enemies and pray for ourpersecutors (Matt. 5:44; Luke 6:27). While being crucified, Jesusaccordingly prays, “Father, forgive them” (Luke 23:34;cf. Acts 7:60). Preparing for arrest, Jesus warns his disciples topray to avoid temptation, and he himself prays (Matt. 26:41). BothJesus and Paul say that believers will be persecuted (Matt. 24:9;1Thess. 3:4; 2Tim. 3:12), but God gives strength inpersecution (Acts 14:22; 2Cor.12:10).
Jesus Christ is the centerpiece of the Christian Scriptures. The meaning and interpretation of both Testaments is properly grasped only in light of the person and work of Jesus Christ. That is not to say that the Testaments testify to Jesus Christ in the exact same way; they obviously do not, but both Testaments are part of the inscripturated revelation that, in light of the incarnation, proclaims Jesus Christ to be the fullest manifestation of God given to humankind.
Old Testament
According to the Scriptures. The early Christians were adamant that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ happened “according to the Scriptures” (1 Cor. 15:3–4), which meant that these events lined up with Israel’s sacred traditions. On the road to Emmaus the risen Jesus explained to the two travelers the things concerning himself “beginning with Moses and all the Prophets,” in relation to the death and glorification of the Messiah (Luke 24:27). In one of the major Johannine discourses, Jesus tells the Pharisees that the Scriptures “testify about me” (John 5:39). Early Christian authors could find certain key texts that demonstrated the conformity of the Christ-event to the pattern of Israel’s Scriptures, such as Pss. 2; 110; 118; Isa. 53. Yet much of the OT can be understood without mention of Jesus Christ in relation to its own historical context, and there is the danger of overly allegorizing OT texts in order to make them say something about Jesus Christ and the church.
The relationship between the Testaments. The way that the NT authors echo, allude to, quote, and interpret the OT is a complex matter, but at least two points need to be made about the relationship between the two Testaments.
First, the OT anticipates and illuminates the coming of Jesus Christ. “Anticipate” does not mean “predict,” but the law and the prophets foreshadow the offices and identity of Jesus Christ. The offices of prophet, priest, and king in the OT prefigure the ministry of Christ, who is the one who reveals God, intercedes on behalf of humankind, and is the Messiah and Lord. The sacrificial cultus, with the necessity of shedding blood for the removal of sin, prefigures the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ. This is why the law is a “shadow” of the one who was to come (Col. 2:17; Heb. 10:1). “Illuminate” means that certain OT texts, though not referring to Jesus in their historical or literary context, explain aspects of his person and work. This is seen most clearly in the way that the psalms are used in the NT. Texts such as Pss. 2:7; 110:1–4 provided biblical categories that explained the nature of Jesus’ sonship, the quality of his priestly ministry, and his installation as God’s vice-regent.
Second, we should differentiate between prophecy and typology. The prophetic promises in Ezek. 37; Amos 9; and Mic. 4 about a future Davidic king whom God will use to save and restore Israel are genuine prophecies that look forward to a future event yet to be fulfilled. These texts set forth the job description of the Messiah as the renewal and restoration of Israel from bondage and exile. It is unsurprising then that in Acts, James the brother of Jesus could cite Amos 9:11–12 as proof that Gentiles should be accepted into the people of God with the coming of the Messiah (Acts 15:15–18).
Typological interpretation, on the other hand, sees OT persons, places, or events as prototypes or patterns of NT persons, places, or events. For example, in Rom. 5:14 Paul says that Adam is a “type” or “pattern” of the one to come. Similarly, Matthew’s use of Isa. 7:14 in Matt. 1:23 is also typological rather than prophetic. In the context of Isaiah, the promise refers to a child born during the reign of King Ahaz as a sign that the Judean kingdom will survive the Assyrian onslaught. Matthew’s citation does not demand an exact correspondence of events as much as it postulates a correlation of patterns or types between Isaiah’s narrative and the Matthean birth story. The coming of God’s Son, the manifestation of God’s presence, and the rescue of Israel through a child born to a young girl bring to Matthew’s mind Isa. 7 as an obvious prophetic precedent, repeated at a new juncture of redemptive history.
A Christology of the Old Testament. The NT authors interpreted the OT in search of answers to questions pertaining to the identity and ministry of Jesus Christ, the nature of the people of God, and the arrival of the new age. They detected patterns in the OT that were repeated or recapitulated in Jesus’ own person. They proclaimed that the prophetic promises made to Israel had been made good in Jesus Christ, and they found allusions to the various events of his life, death, and exaltation. Jesus and Israel’s Scriptures became a mutually interpretive spiral whereby the Christians began to understand the OT in light of Jesus and understood Jesus in light of the OT. In this canonical setting we can legitimately develop a “Christology of the Old Testament.”
New Testament
The Gospels. The canonical Gospels are four ancient biographies that pay attention to the history and significance of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. They represent a testimony to Jesus and embody the collective memory of his person and actions as they were transmitted and interpreted by Christians in the Greco-Roman world of the mid- to late first century.
All four Gospels follow the same basic outline by variably detailing Jesus’ ministry, passion, and exaltation, and all of them place the story of Jesus in the context of the fulfillment of the story of Israel. At the same time, each Gospel in its plot and portrayal of Jesus remains distinctive in its own right. Yet they are not four different Jesuses, but rather four parallel portraits of Jesus, much like four stained-glass windows or four paintings depict the same person in different ways.
The Gospel of Matthew portrays Jesus as the long-awaited Davidic Messiah of Israel, with a focus on his teaching authority as a type of new Moses. The Gospel of Mark describes Jesus as the powerful Son of God and concurrently as the suffering Son of Man, whose cross reveals the reality of his identity and mission. The Gospel of Luke emphasizes Jesus’ role as an anointed prophet with a special concern for the poor and outcasts and his role as dispenser of the Holy Spirit. Without flattening the distinctive christological shape of each of the Synoptic Gospels, we could say that they focus on Jesus as the proclaimer of the kingdom of God and as king of the very same kingdom.
The Gospel of John has its own set of characteristic emphases in which Jesus’ consciousness of his divine nature and purpose is heightened. Programmatic for the entirety of John’s Gospel is the prologue in 1:1–18 about the “Word [who] became flesh,” which gives a clear theology of incarnation and revelation associated with Jesus’ coming. There is also much material unique to John’s Gospel, such as the “I am” statements that further exposit the nature of Jesus’ person and the climactic confession by Thomas that Jesus is “my Lord and my God” (20:28).
The Gospels indicate that mere knowledge that Jesus died for the purpose of salvation is an insufficient understanding of him. What is also needed, and what they provide, is an understanding of his teachings and his mission in light of Israel’s Scriptures and in view of the sociopolitical situation of Palestine. Jesus came to redeem and renew Israel so that a transformed Israel would transform the world.
Acts. The book of Acts contains the story of the emergence of the early church from Jerusalem to Rome. Even though Acts is a repository of apostolic preaching and plots the beginnings of the Gentile mission, it is the sequel to Luke’s Gospel and is very much the story of Jesus in perfect tense (i.e., a past event with ongoing significance). The most succinct summary of the Christology of Acts is in Peter’s speech in Jerusalem, where he states that “this Jesus” whom they crucified has been made both “Lord and Christ [NIV: “Messiah”]” by God (2:36). In the succeeding narratives emphasis is given to “Jesus is the Christ [NIV: “Messiah”]” (e.g., 9:22; 17:3; 18:5), which is a message pertinent to Jews and Gentiles (20:21).
Paul’s Letters. The Pauline Epistles, although they are situational, pastoral, and not given primarily to christological exposition, still exhibit beliefs about Jesus held by Paul and his Christian contemporaries. The high points of Paul’s Christology can be detected in his use of traditional material such as Col. 1:15–20, which exposits the sufficiency and the supremacy of Christ. Philippians 2:5–11 narrates the story of the incarnation as an example of self-giving love. In 1 Cor. 8:6 Paul offers a Christianized version of the Shema of Deut. 6:4. There is a petition to Jesus as “Come, Lord!” in 1 Cor. 16:22. Paul can also refer to Jesus as God in Rom. 9:5 (although the grammar is ambiguous). For Paul, Jesus is both the “heavenly man” (1 Cor. 15:47–49) and the Son to come from heaven (1 Thess. 1:10). This interest in the divine Son of God does not mean that Paul was ignorant of or disinterested in the life and teachings of Jesus. Elsewhere he implies knowledge of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Rom. 14:14; 1 Cor. 7:10–11) and refers to the incarnation (e.g., 2 Cor. 8:9; Col. 2:9).
A number of titles are used to describe Jesus in Paul’s letters, including “Lord” and “Christ/Messiah” (and variations such as “Lord Jesus Christ” and “Christ Jesus”), “Savior,” and “Seed of David” (Rom. 1:3). But probably the most apt expression of Jesus’ nature according to Paul is “Son of God” (e.g., Rom. 1:4; 2 Cor. 1:19; Gal. 2:20). This language of sonship suggests that Jesus is the means of God’s salvation and glory and is the special agent through whom the Father acts. Referring to Jesus as “Son” also underscores Jesus’ unique relationship to God the Father and his unique role in executing the ordained plan of salvation for the elect.
We might also add that Paul provides the building blocks of what would later become a full-blown trinitarian theology, such as in the benediction of 2 Cor. 13:14 and in general exhortations about the gospel (1 Cor. 2:1–5). It must be emphasized that Paul’s Christology cannot be separated from his eschatology, soteriology, and ecclesiology. The sending of God’s Son (see Rom. 8:3; Gal. 4:4–5) into the world marks the coming of redemption and salvation through the cross and resurrection of the Son, and these are appropriated by faith. Those who believe become members of the restored Israel, the renewed Adamic race, and constituent members of the body of Christ. To that we might add the experiential element of Paul’s Christology as Jesus is known in the experience of salvation, prayer, and worship (e.g., Gal. 2:19–20).
The General Letters. The General Letters (also called the Catholic Epistles) provide a further array of images and explorations into the person and work of Jesus Christ and how they relate to the community of faith. The message of Hebrews is essentially “Jesus is better!” He is better than the angels and better than Moses; he is a better high priest; he offers a better sacrifice, establishes a better law, and instigates a better covenant. This letter is a sermonic exhortation against falling away from the faith (e.g., 2:1–4), and toward that end the author sets before his readers the magnificence of Jesus Christ, who is “the same yesterday and today and forever” (13:8).
James has little christological content and focuses instead on exhortations that bear remarkable resemblance to the teachings of Jesus from the Gospels. Even so, the letter makes passing reference to the “glorious Lord Jesus Christ” (2:1; cf. 1:1).
Central to 1 Peter is the glory and salvation that will be manifested at the revelation of Jesus Christ at his second coming (1:5, 7, 9, 13; 4:13; 5:1). Much attention is given to Jesus’ sacrificial death as a lamb (1:19), the example of his suffering (2:21–23; 4:1–2, 13), and the substitutionary nature of his death (2:24; 3:18). He is the Shepherd and Overseer of the souls of Christians (2:25). Peter writes this to encourage congregations in Asia Minor living under adverse conditions, and he sets before them the pattern of Jesus as a model for their own journey.
In 2 Peter we find a mix of Jewish eschatological concepts and Hellenistic religious language, with the author seeking to defend the apostolic gospel in a pagan culture. Jesus is the source of knowledge (1:2, 8; 2:20) and righteousness (1:1). Much emphasis is given to the coming kingdom of Jesus Christ (1:11, 16; 3:10). Jesus is the sustainer and renewer of the church and also the coming judge of the entire world.
Similar themes can be found in Jude, which is addressed to a group of believers who have been infiltrated by false teachers promoting licentiousness. Jude declares the infiltrators to be condemned and calls on the believers to hold fast to the faith. Jesus is the “Sovereign and Lord” (v. 4), Jesus saved people out of Egypt during the exodus (v. 5 [but see marginal notes on the variant reading “Lord”]), the second coming of Jesus will mark the revelation of his “mercy” (v. 21), and the benediction ascribes “glory, majesty, power and authority” to God through Jesus (v. 25). Most characteristic of all is the emphasis upon Jesus/God as the one who keeps the believers in the grip of his saving power (vv. 1, 21, 23).
The Letters of John take up where the Gospel of John left off, focusing on Jesus as the incarnate Word of God. The first of the three Johannine Epistles appears to have been written in a context where a community of Christians was being pressured by Jews to deny that Jesus is the Messiah (2:22) and also by dissident docetists to deny that Jesus had a physical body (4:2; 5:6). The major focus, however, is on Jesus as the Son of God (1:3, 7; 2:23; 3:8, 23; 4:9–10, 15; 5:11) and the incarnation of God’s very own truth and love (3:16; cf. 2 John 3).
Revelation. The Christology of the book of Revelation is best summed up in the opening description of Jesus as “him who is, and who was, and who is to come,” which underscores the lordship of Jesus over the past, present, and future. John then describes Jesus with the threefold titles “the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth” (1:4–5). In many ways, the story and Christology of Revelation are paradoxical. Jesus is both the victim of Roman violence and the victor over human evil. Jesus is the suffering “Lamb of God” and the powerful “Lion of the tribe of Judah.” In Rev. 4–5 we are given a picture of the worship in heaven and the enthronement of Jesus, and yet the realities on earth are a dearth of heavenly goodness, with persecution and apostasy rampant (Rev. 1–3). This tension continues until the final revelation of Jesus, when the heavenly Lord returns to bring the goodness and power of heaven to transform the perils of the earth and bring his people into the new Jerusalem.
Summary
The primary fixtures of a biblical Christology are (1) Jesus Christ is the promised deliverer intimated in Israel’s Scriptures, whose identity and mission are anticipated and illuminated by the law and the prophets; (2) the man Jesus of Nazareth is identified with the risen and exalted Lord Jesus Christ; and (3) Jesus participates in the very identity and being of God. See also Jesus Christ.
Silas was a Jewish Christian, a Roman citizen (Acts16:37–38), and a leader of the Jerusalem church (15:22). He wasassigned the very important role of emissary of the Jerusalem churchto Antioch, carrying the letter related to the Jerusalem council ofActs 15. He was also a prophet (15:32). Paul chose Silas to accompanyhim on the second missionary journey (15:40–41), yet Silas wasa coequal with Paul rather than a subordinate like Timothy. Silas’spresence probably was a validation of Paul’s gospel, and Silaslikely represented the Jerusalem church in the “Pauline”missionary work.
Paulprobably refers to Silas as an apostle of Christ in 1Thess.2:6. Silas preached the gospel to the Corinthians (2Cor. 1:19)and is a named cosender of both Thessalonian letters. The same Silasis the secretary who wrote down the letter 1Peter for theapostle Peter (1Pet. 5:12–13). “Silas” is theGreek form of the Hebrew or Aramaic name “Saul”; theLatin spelling is “Silvanus” (cf. Gk. Silouanos in 2Cor.1:19; 1Thess. 1:1; 2Thess. 1:1; 1Pet. 5:12).
Silas was a Jewish Christian, a Roman citizen (Acts16:37–38), and a leader of the Jerusalem church (15:22). He wasassigned the very important role of emissary of the Jerusalem churchto Antioch, carrying the letter related to the Jerusalem council ofActs 15. He was also a prophet (15:32). Paul chose Silas to accompanyhim on the second missionary journey (15:40–41), yet Silas wasa coequal with Paul rather than a subordinate like Timothy. Silas’spresence probably was a validation of Paul’s gospel, and Silaslikely represented the Jerusalem church in the “Pauline”missionary work.
Paulprobably refers to Silas as an apostle of Christ in 1Thess.2:6. Silas preached the gospel to the Corinthians (2Cor. 1:19)and is a named cosender of both Thessalonian letters. The same Silasis the secretary who wrote down the letter 1Peter for theapostle Peter (1Pet. 5:12–13). “Silas” is theGreek form of the Hebrew or Aramaic name “Saul”; theLatin spelling is “Silvanus” (cf. Gk. Silouanos in 2Cor.1:19; 1Thess. 1:1; 2Thess. 1:1; 1Pet. 5:12).
The NT conception of tribulation is perhaps best summarizedin Paul’s pastoral reminder, “We must go through manyhardships to enter the kingdom of God” (Acts 14:22). The Greekterm used here for “hardship” is thlipsis.
Inthe NT, thlipsis may refer generally to the sufferings andafflictions that occur in the normal course of human living (John16:21; Acts 7:11; 1Cor. 7:28; James 1:27). In its more commonand specific usage, “tribulation” relates directly to theexperience of the people of God as a consequence of their faithfulproclamation of the gospel. Thus, in the parable of the sower,“tribulation or persecution arises on account of the word”(Matt. 13:21; Mark 4:17 ESV).
Oneof the primary aspects of the biblical view of tribulation relates tothe tribulation and suffering of Christ as the pattern for the church(Rev. 1:9). That his followers would suffer tribulation was madeexplicit by Jesus to his followers in the Farewell Discourse (John14–17). There he informs them, “In the world you willhave tribulation” (John 16:33 ESV).
Closelyrelated to the impending tribulation that confronts all believers isthe NT affirmation that the sufferings of Christ serve as the modelfor the tribulation of the people of God. Jesus thus warns thedisciples, “If the world hates you, keep in mind that it hatedme first” (John 15:18; cf. 15:20). Paul continues this conceptin Col. 1:24 (cf. 2Cor. 1:5; 4:10–12; Phil. 3:10; 1Pet.4:13). The tribulation that the people of God experience serves toequip them in a variety of ways. Most significantly, tribulationresults in the transformation of the people of God into the likenessof Christ (Rom. 5:3–5; 2Cor. 4:8–12).
Thebook of Acts records the fulfillment of Jesus’ warning to hisfollowers: it was because of persecution that the church wasscattered (Acts 8:1). Later, Paul notes that he has experiencedtribulation (2Cor. 1:8), as did the church in Thessalonica(1Thess. 1:6) and the recipients of Hebrews (Heb. 10:33). Thereality of “tribulation” is seen in the exhortation ofJohn to the church in Smyrna (Rev. 2:9).
Anotherimportant aspect of the tribulations that await the people of God inthe NT era is the relationship of tribulation to the kingdom of God(cf. Matt. 24:9–14; Rev. 1:9; 7:14). Many hold to the notionthat there will be an intensification of tribulation immediatelyprior to the return of Christ (Matt. 24:31; Mark 13:24).
The“great tribulation” of Rev. 7:14 has been interpreted ina variety of ways. Some understand this as a future event limited toseven or three and one-half years. Many others, however, associatethis event with the tribulation, suffering, and affliction of thepeople of God throughout the entire era from the resurrection to thesecond coming. The expression “great tribulation” alludesto Dan. 12:1. The Danielic context incorporates a time of persecutionand suffering among the people of God. The use of “tribulation”in Revelation (Rev. 1:9; 2:9–10, 22; 7:14) corresponds with thepersecution of the people of God. A comparison with Matt. 24:21confirms this conclusion. Therefore, regardless of how one reads the“great tribulation” in Rev. 7:14, as present or futurereality, it appears that this tribulation refers to the suffering ofGod’s people and not to an exemption from it (cf. John 17:15).
The Bible has much to say about works, and an understandingof the topic is important because works play a role in mostreligions. In the most generic sense, “works” refers tothe products or activities of human moral agents in the context ofreligious discussion. God’s works are frequently mentioned inScripture, and they are always good. His works include creation (Gen.2:2–3; Isa. 40:28; 42:5), sustenance of the earth (Ps. 104;Heb. 1:3), and redemption (Exod. 6:6; Ps. 111:9; Rom. 8:23). Humanworks, therefore, should be in alignment with God’s works,though obviously of a different sort. Works in the Bible usuallyreflect a moral polarity: good or evil, righteous or unrighteous,just or unjust. The context of the passage often determines the moralcharacter of the works (e.g., Isa. 3:10–11; 2Cor. 11:15).
Importantquestions follow from the existence of works and their moral quality.Do good works merit God’s favor or please him? Can good workssave at the time of God’s judgment? When people asked Jesus,“What must we do to do the works God requires?” heanswered, “The work of God is this: to believe in the one hehas sent” (John 6:28–29). Without faith it is impossibleto please God (Heb. 11:6). The people from the OT commended in Heb.11 did their works in the precondition of faith. Explicitly in the NTand often implicitly in the OT, faith is the condition for truly goodworks. God elects out of his mercy, not out of human works (Rom.9:12, 16; Titus 3:5; cf. Rom. 11:2). Works not done in faith, even ifconsidered “good” by human standards, are not commendableto God, since all humankind is under sin (Rom. 3:9) and no person isrighteous or does good (Rom. 3:10–18; cf. Isa. 64:6). Workscannot save; salvation is a gift to be received by faith (Eph. 2:8–9;2Tim. 1:9; cf. Rom. 4:2–6). Even works of the Mosaic laware not salvific (Rom. 3:20, 27–28; Gal. 2:16; 3:2; 5:4). Goodworks follow from faith (2Cor. 9:8; Eph. 2:10; 1Thess.1:3; James 2:18, 22; cf. Acts 26:20). The works of those who havefaith will be judged, but this judgment appears to be related torewards, not salvation (Matt. 16:27; Rom. 2:6; 2Cor. 5:10; cf.Rom. 14:10; 1Cor. 3:13–15).
Despite tendencies to downplay the reality of God’sanger (God is classically described as “without passions”),if we are to do justice to both Testaments, we must allow thelanguage of Scripture to stand, where God often is said to be angrywith individuals or nations, including Israel. Although God ischangeless (Mal. 3:6), he interacts in a personal way with atime-bound world. The Bible writers intend us to understand thatthere is something in God’s anger to which human anger isanalogous, though God’s anger is not identical to ours (Hos.11:9). God’s anger is not an automatic response; he canrestrain it (Ps. 78:38). God is said to be characteristically slow tobecome angry; that is, his anger is a deliberate response (Exod.34:6, a text with numerous echoes) and may also be short-lived (Ps.30:5; Mic. 7:18).
God’sanger against Israel in the wilderness is noteworthy (Heb. 3:10, 17).The apostasy with the golden calf (Exod. 32:10–12), thecomplaining (Num. 11:1, 33), and the failure to enter the promisedland following the report of the spies (Num. 32:10–11) allprovoke God to anger. Failure to heed God’s word (Zech. 7:12)or that of his prophets (2Chron. 36:16), neglect of his worship(2Chron. 29:6–8), and intermarriage with idolaters (Ezra9:14) are behaviors that incur the wrath of God.
God’sanger is directed against individuals, particularly for failures ofleadership, as with Moses (Exod. 4:14; Deut. 1:37) and Solomon(1Kings 11:9–11). God’s anger often is directedagainst the Israelite and Judean kings, not just those who committedidolatry (2Chron. 25:15), but even those who are faithful inmost respects, for their failure to remove the idolatrous high places(2Kings 23:19).
Pickingup on the warning that God’s anger will be directed againstthose who do not pay homage to God’s appointed king (Ps. 2:5,12), Jesus declares that disobedience to God’s Son brings uponone the wrath of God (John 3:36), which evidently is not incompatiblewith his love for the world (3:16). According to Rom. 4:15, God’swrath is a consequence of the law; that is, the law, giving concreteexpression to the character of God, brings culpability fortransgression. God’s wrath is revealed against all forms ofungodliness and its tendency to suppress the truth (Rom. 1:18). Thosewho demonstrate their disobedience to God or his truth will besubjected to his anger (Rom. 2:8; Eph. 5:6; Col. 3:6).
Apervasive metaphor for anger is that of a burning fire (Deut. 32:22;Ps. 89:46; Isa. 66:15) along with associated images of smoke (Ps.18:8) and smelting metal (Ezek. 22:20, 22). Other images are thewinepress (Isa. 63:3; Rev. 14:19), drinking from a vessel (Isa.51:22; Rev. 14:10), and a tempest (Ezek. 13:13).
Thejudgment that follows as a consequence of God’s anger beingaroused takes the form of the withholding of God’s covenantfavor (Ps. 95:11; Isa. 54:8) or the implementation of his covenantcurses (Deut. 29:27), specifically through drought (Deut. 11:17),plague (Ps. 78:50), the sword (Ps. 78:62), and deliverance into thehands of enemies (2Kings 13:3), leading to exile (2Chron.6:36). God’s anger can be depicted in various forms of cosmicupheaval or the undoing of creation (2Sam. 22:8–16; Ps.18:7; Jer. 4:26). God’s anger is beyond human ability to endure(Ps. 76:7), such that hiding in Sheol is considered preferable (Job14:13).
God’swrath becomes particularly associated with a coming day of wrath atthe end of the age, when God’s justice will be powerfullydisplayed (Dan. 8:19; Zeph. 2:3; Luke 21:23; Rom. 2:5; Rev. 6:17).
Subjectionto God’s anger may evoke the cry “How long?” (Pss.79:5; 80:4). While God’s mercy cannot be taken for granted,since his anger against some may be final as an expression of hisjustice (Jer. 30:24; Rom. 12:19), God’s anger may be assuagedor averted through humbling oneself (2Chron. 12:7) and anappeal to God for mercy (Ps. 106:23; Hab. 3:2), by repentance(2Chron. 29:10; Ezra 10:14; Jon. 3:9), by zealous action toroot out evil (Num. 25:11), and by the faithful ministry of God’sappointed servants (Num. 1:53; 18:5).
TheNT brings to fulfillment these forms of mediation in presenting theultimate remedy for God’s wrath in the person and work of JesusChrist (Rom. 5:9; 1Thess. 1:10; 5:9). The use of “propitiation”language (Rom. 3:25; Heb. 2:17; 1John 2:2), though itssignificance is disputed, is classically understood in terms of theneed for God’s wrath to be satisfied. In that case, it isspecifically the cross of Christ that ultimately deals with God’srighteous anger against sinners.
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
1 Thessalonians 1:1-10
is mentioned in the definition.
Jesus Christ is the centerpiece of the Christian Scriptures. The meaning and interpretation of both Testaments is properly grasped only in light of the person and work of Jesus Christ. That is not to say that the Testaments testify to Jesus Christ in the exact same way; they obviously do not, but both Testaments are part of the inscripturated revelation that, in light of the incarnation, proclaims Jesus Christ to be the fullest manifestation of God given to humankind.
Old Testament
According to the Scriptures. The early Christians were adamant that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ happened “according to the Scriptures” (1 Cor. 15:3–4), which meant that these events lined up with Israel’s sacred traditions. On the road to Emmaus the risen Jesus explained to the two travelers the things concerning himself “beginning with Moses and all the Prophets,” in relation to the death and glorification of the Messiah (Luke 24:27). In one of the major Johannine discourses, Jesus tells the Pharisees that the Scriptures “testify about me” (John 5:39). Early Christian authors could find certain key texts that demonstrated the conformity of the Christ-event to the pattern of Israel’s Scriptures, such as Pss. 2; 110; 118; Isa. 53. Yet much of the OT can be understood without mention of Jesus Christ in relation to its own historical context, and there is the danger of overly allegorizing OT texts in order to make them say something about Jesus Christ and the church.
The relationship between the Testaments. The way that the NT authors echo, allude to, quote, and interpret the OT is a complex matter, but at least two points need to be made about the relationship between the two Testaments.
First, the OT anticipates and illuminates the coming of Jesus Christ. “Anticipate” does not mean “predict,” but the law and the prophets foreshadow the offices and identity of Jesus Christ. The offices of prophet, priest, and king in the OT prefigure the ministry of Christ, who is the one who reveals God, intercedes on behalf of humankind, and is the Messiah and Lord. The sacrificial cultus, with the necessity of shedding blood for the removal of sin, prefigures the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ. This is why the law is a “shadow” of the one who was to come (Col. 2:17; Heb. 10:1). “Illuminate” means that certain OT texts, though not referring to Jesus in their historical or literary context, explain aspects of his person and work. This is seen most clearly in the way that the psalms are used in the NT. Texts such as Pss. 2:7; 110:1–4 provided biblical categories that explained the nature of Jesus’ sonship, the quality of his priestly ministry, and his installation as God’s vice-regent.
Second, we should differentiate between prophecy and typology. The prophetic promises in Ezek. 37; Amos 9; and Mic. 4 about a future Davidic king whom God will use to save and restore Israel are genuine prophecies that look forward to a future event yet to be fulfilled. These texts set forth the job description of the Messiah as the renewal and restoration of Israel from bondage and exile. It is unsurprising then that in Acts, James the brother of Jesus could cite Amos 9:11–12 as proof that Gentiles should be accepted into the people of God with the coming of the Messiah (Acts 15:15–18).
Typological interpretation, on the other hand, sees OT persons, places, or events as prototypes or patterns of NT persons, places, or events. For example, in Rom. 5:14 Paul says that Adam is a “type” or “pattern” of the one to come. Similarly, Matthew’s use of Isa. 7:14 in Matt. 1:23 is also typological rather than prophetic. In the context of Isaiah, the promise refers to a child born during the reign of King Ahaz as a sign that the Judean kingdom will survive the Assyrian onslaught. Matthew’s citation does not demand an exact correspondence of events as much as it postulates a correlation of patterns or types between Isaiah’s narrative and the Matthean birth story. The coming of God’s Son, the manifestation of God’s presence, and the rescue of Israel through a child born to a young girl bring to Matthew’s mind Isa. 7 as an obvious prophetic precedent, repeated at a new juncture of redemptive history.
A Christology of the Old Testament. The NT authors interpreted the OT in search of answers to questions pertaining to the identity and ministry of Jesus Christ, the nature of the people of God, and the arrival of the new age. They detected patterns in the OT that were repeated or recapitulated in Jesus’ own person. They proclaimed that the prophetic promises made to Israel had been made good in Jesus Christ, and they found allusions to the various events of his life, death, and exaltation. Jesus and Israel’s Scriptures became a mutually interpretive spiral whereby the Christians began to understand the OT in light of Jesus and understood Jesus in light of the OT. In this canonical setting we can legitimately develop a “Christology of the Old Testament.”
New Testament
The Gospels. The canonical Gospels are four ancient biographies that pay attention to the history and significance of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. They represent a testimony to Jesus and embody the collective memory of his person and actions as they were transmitted and interpreted by Christians in the Greco-Roman world of the mid- to late first century.
All four Gospels follow the same basic outline by variably detailing Jesus’ ministry, passion, and exaltation, and all of them place the story of Jesus in the context of the fulfillment of the story of Israel. At the same time, each Gospel in its plot and portrayal of Jesus remains distinctive in its own right. Yet they are not four different Jesuses, but rather four parallel portraits of Jesus, much like four stained-glass windows or four paintings depict the same person in different ways.
The Gospel of Matthew portrays Jesus as the long-awaited Davidic Messiah of Israel, with a focus on his teaching authority as a type of new Moses. The Gospel of Mark describes Jesus as the powerful Son of God and concurrently as the suffering Son of Man, whose cross reveals the reality of his identity and mission. The Gospel of Luke emphasizes Jesus’ role as an anointed prophet with a special concern for the poor and outcasts and his role as dispenser of the Holy Spirit. Without flattening the distinctive christological shape of each of the Synoptic Gospels, we could say that they focus on Jesus as the proclaimer of the kingdom of God and as king of the very same kingdom.
The Gospel of John has its own set of characteristic emphases in which Jesus’ consciousness of his divine nature and purpose is heightened. Programmatic for the entirety of John’s Gospel is the prologue in 1:1–18 about the “Word [who] became flesh,” which gives a clear theology of incarnation and revelation associated with Jesus’ coming. There is also much material unique to John’s Gospel, such as the “I am” statements that further exposit the nature of Jesus’ person and the climactic confession by Thomas that Jesus is “my Lord and my God” (20:28).
The Gospels indicate that mere knowledge that Jesus died for the purpose of salvation is an insufficient understanding of him. What is also needed, and what they provide, is an understanding of his teachings and his mission in light of Israel’s Scriptures and in view of the sociopolitical situation of Palestine. Jesus came to redeem and renew Israel so that a transformed Israel would transform the world.
Acts. The book of Acts contains the story of the emergence of the early church from Jerusalem to Rome. Even though Acts is a repository of apostolic preaching and plots the beginnings of the Gentile mission, it is the sequel to Luke’s Gospel and is very much the story of Jesus in perfect tense (i.e., a past event with ongoing significance). The most succinct summary of the Christology of Acts is in Peter’s speech in Jerusalem, where he states that “this Jesus” whom they crucified has been made both “Lord and Christ [NIV: “Messiah”]” by God (2:36). In the succeeding narratives emphasis is given to “Jesus is the Christ [NIV: “Messiah”]” (e.g., 9:22; 17:3; 18:5), which is a message pertinent to Jews and Gentiles (20:21).
Paul’s Letters. The Pauline Epistles, although they are situational, pastoral, and not given primarily to christological exposition, still exhibit beliefs about Jesus held by Paul and his Christian contemporaries. The high points of Paul’s Christology can be detected in his use of traditional material such as Col. 1:15–20, which exposits the sufficiency and the supremacy of Christ. Philippians 2:5–11 narrates the story of the incarnation as an example of self-giving love. In 1 Cor. 8:6 Paul offers a Christianized version of the Shema of Deut. 6:4. There is a petition to Jesus as “Come, Lord!” in 1 Cor. 16:22. Paul can also refer to Jesus as God in Rom. 9:5 (although the grammar is ambiguous). For Paul, Jesus is both the “heavenly man” (1 Cor. 15:47–49) and the Son to come from heaven (1 Thess. 1:10). This interest in the divine Son of God does not mean that Paul was ignorant of or disinterested in the life and teachings of Jesus. Elsewhere he implies knowledge of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Rom. 14:14; 1 Cor. 7:10–11) and refers to the incarnation (e.g., 2 Cor. 8:9; Col. 2:9).
A number of titles are used to describe Jesus in Paul’s letters, including “Lord” and “Christ/Messiah” (and variations such as “Lord Jesus Christ” and “Christ Jesus”), “Savior,” and “Seed of David” (Rom. 1:3). But probably the most apt expression of Jesus’ nature according to Paul is “Son of God” (e.g., Rom. 1:4; 2 Cor. 1:19; Gal. 2:20). This language of sonship suggests that Jesus is the means of God’s salvation and glory and is the special agent through whom the Father acts. Referring to Jesus as “Son” also underscores Jesus’ unique relationship to God the Father and his unique role in executing the ordained plan of salvation for the elect.
We might also add that Paul provides the building blocks of what would later become a full-blown trinitarian theology, such as in the benediction of 2 Cor. 13:14 and in general exhortations about the gospel (1 Cor. 2:1–5). It must be emphasized that Paul’s Christology cannot be separated from his eschatology, soteriology, and ecclesiology. The sending of God’s Son (see Rom. 8:3; Gal. 4:4–5) into the world marks the coming of redemption and salvation through the cross and resurrection of the Son, and these are appropriated by faith. Those who believe become members of the restored Israel, the renewed Adamic race, and constituent members of the body of Christ. To that we might add the experiential element of Paul’s Christology as Jesus is known in the experience of salvation, prayer, and worship (e.g., Gal. 2:19–20).
The General Letters. The General Letters (also called the Catholic Epistles) provide a further array of images and explorations into the person and work of Jesus Christ and how they relate to the community of faith. The message of Hebrews is essentially “Jesus is better!” He is better than the angels and better than Moses; he is a better high priest; he offers a better sacrifice, establishes a better law, and instigates a better covenant. This letter is a sermonic exhortation against falling away from the faith (e.g., 2:1–4), and toward that end the author sets before his readers the magnificence of Jesus Christ, who is “the same yesterday and today and forever” (13:8).
James has little christological content and focuses instead on exhortations that bear remarkable resemblance to the teachings of Jesus from the Gospels. Even so, the letter makes passing reference to the “glorious Lord Jesus Christ” (2:1; cf. 1:1).
Central to 1 Peter is the glory and salvation that will be manifested at the revelation of Jesus Christ at his second coming (1:5, 7, 9, 13; 4:13; 5:1). Much attention is given to Jesus’ sacrificial death as a lamb (1:19), the example of his suffering (2:21–23; 4:1–2, 13), and the substitutionary nature of his death (2:24; 3:18). He is the Shepherd and Overseer of the souls of Christians (2:25). Peter writes this to encourage congregations in Asia Minor living under adverse conditions, and he sets before them the pattern of Jesus as a model for their own journey.
In 2 Peter we find a mix of Jewish eschatological concepts and Hellenistic religious language, with the author seeking to defend the apostolic gospel in a pagan culture. Jesus is the source of knowledge (1:2, 8; 2:20) and righteousness (1:1). Much emphasis is given to the coming kingdom of Jesus Christ (1:11, 16; 3:10). Jesus is the sustainer and renewer of the church and also the coming judge of the entire world.
Similar themes can be found in Jude, which is addressed to a group of believers who have been infiltrated by false teachers promoting licentiousness. Jude declares the infiltrators to be condemned and calls on the believers to hold fast to the faith. Jesus is the “Sovereign and Lord” (v. 4), Jesus saved people out of Egypt during the exodus (v. 5 [but see marginal notes on the variant reading “Lord”]), the second coming of Jesus will mark the revelation of his “mercy” (v. 21), and the benediction ascribes “glory, majesty, power and authority” to God through Jesus (v. 25). Most characteristic of all is the emphasis upon Jesus/God as the one who keeps the believers in the grip of his saving power (vv. 1, 21, 23).
The Letters of John take up where the Gospel of John left off, focusing on Jesus as the incarnate Word of God. The first of the three Johannine Epistles appears to have been written in a context where a community of Christians was being pressured by Jews to deny that Jesus is the Messiah (2:22) and also by dissident docetists to deny that Jesus had a physical body (4:2; 5:6). The major focus, however, is on Jesus as the Son of God (1:3, 7; 2:23; 3:8, 23; 4:9–10, 15; 5:11) and the incarnation of God’s very own truth and love (3:16; cf. 2 John 3).
Revelation. The Christology of the book of Revelation is best summed up in the opening description of Jesus as “him who is, and who was, and who is to come,” which underscores the lordship of Jesus over the past, present, and future. John then describes Jesus with the threefold titles “the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth” (1:4–5). In many ways, the story and Christology of Revelation are paradoxical. Jesus is both the victim of Roman violence and the victor over human evil. Jesus is the suffering “Lamb of God” and the powerful “Lion of the tribe of Judah.” In Rev. 4–5 we are given a picture of the worship in heaven and the enthronement of Jesus, and yet the realities on earth are a dearth of heavenly goodness, with persecution and apostasy rampant (Rev. 1–3). This tension continues until the final revelation of Jesus, when the heavenly Lord returns to bring the goodness and power of heaven to transform the perils of the earth and bring his people into the new Jerusalem.
Summary
The primary fixtures of a biblical Christology are (1) Jesus Christ is the promised deliverer intimated in Israel’s Scriptures, whose identity and mission are anticipated and illuminated by the law and the prophets; (2) the man Jesus of Nazareth is identified with the risen and exalted Lord Jesus Christ; and (3) Jesus participates in the very identity and being of God. See also Jesus Christ.
Jesus Christ is the centerpiece of the Christian Scriptures. The meaning and interpretation of both Testaments is properly grasped only in light of the person and work of Jesus Christ. That is not to say that the Testaments testify to Jesus Christ in the exact same way; they obviously do not, but both Testaments are part of the inscripturated revelation that, in light of the incarnation, proclaims Jesus Christ to be the fullest manifestation of God given to humankind.
Old Testament
According to the Scriptures. The early Christians were adamant that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ happened “according to the Scriptures” (1 Cor. 15:3–4), which meant that these events lined up with Israel’s sacred traditions. On the road to Emmaus the risen Jesus explained to the two travelers the things concerning himself “beginning with Moses and all the Prophets,” in relation to the death and glorification of the Messiah (Luke 24:27). In one of the major Johannine discourses, Jesus tells the Pharisees that the Scriptures “testify about me” (John 5:39). Early Christian authors could find certain key texts that demonstrated the conformity of the Christ-event to the pattern of Israel’s Scriptures, such as Pss. 2; 110; 118; Isa. 53. Yet much of the OT can be understood without mention of Jesus Christ in relation to its own historical context, and there is the danger of overly allegorizing OT texts in order to make them say something about Jesus Christ and the church.
The relationship between the Testaments. The way that the NT authors echo, allude to, quote, and interpret the OT is a complex matter, but at least two points need to be made about the relationship between the two Testaments.
First, the OT anticipates and illuminates the coming of Jesus Christ. “Anticipate” does not mean “predict,” but the law and the prophets foreshadow the offices and identity of Jesus Christ. The offices of prophet, priest, and king in the OT prefigure the ministry of Christ, who is the one who reveals God, intercedes on behalf of humankind, and is the Messiah and Lord. The sacrificial cultus, with the necessity of shedding blood for the removal of sin, prefigures the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ. This is why the law is a “shadow” of the one who was to come (Col. 2:17; Heb. 10:1). “Illuminate” means that certain OT texts, though not referring to Jesus in their historical or literary context, explain aspects of his person and work. This is seen most clearly in the way that the psalms are used in the NT. Texts such as Pss. 2:7; 110:1–4 provided biblical categories that explained the nature of Jesus’ sonship, the quality of his priestly ministry, and his installation as God’s vice-regent.
Second, we should differentiate between prophecy and typology. The prophetic promises in Ezek. 37; Amos 9; and Mic. 4 about a future Davidic king whom God will use to save and restore Israel are genuine prophecies that look forward to a future event yet to be fulfilled. These texts set forth the job description of the Messiah as the renewal and restoration of Israel from bondage and exile. It is unsurprising then that in Acts, James the brother of Jesus could cite Amos 9:11–12 as proof that Gentiles should be accepted into the people of God with the coming of the Messiah (Acts 15:15–18).
Typological interpretation, on the other hand, sees OT persons, places, or events as prototypes or patterns of NT persons, places, or events. For example, in Rom. 5:14 Paul says that Adam is a “type” or “pattern” of the one to come. Similarly, Matthew’s use of Isa. 7:14 in Matt. 1:23 is also typological rather than prophetic. In the context of Isaiah, the promise refers to a child born during the reign of King Ahaz as a sign that the Judean kingdom will survive the Assyrian onslaught. Matthew’s citation does not demand an exact correspondence of events as much as it postulates a correlation of patterns or types between Isaiah’s narrative and the Matthean birth story. The coming of God’s Son, the manifestation of God’s presence, and the rescue of Israel through a child born to a young girl bring to Matthew’s mind Isa. 7 as an obvious prophetic precedent, repeated at a new juncture of redemptive history.
A Christology of the Old Testament. The NT authors interpreted the OT in search of answers to questions pertaining to the identity and ministry of Jesus Christ, the nature of the people of God, and the arrival of the new age. They detected patterns in the OT that were repeated or recapitulated in Jesus’ own person. They proclaimed that the prophetic promises made to Israel had been made good in Jesus Christ, and they found allusions to the various events of his life, death, and exaltation. Jesus and Israel’s Scriptures became a mutually interpretive spiral whereby the Christians began to understand the OT in light of Jesus and understood Jesus in light of the OT. In this canonical setting we can legitimately develop a “Christology of the Old Testament.”
New Testament
The Gospels. The canonical Gospels are four ancient biographies that pay attention to the history and significance of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. They represent a testimony to Jesus and embody the collective memory of his person and actions as they were transmitted and interpreted by Christians in the Greco-Roman world of the mid- to late first century.
All four Gospels follow the same basic outline by variably detailing Jesus’ ministry, passion, and exaltation, and all of them place the story of Jesus in the context of the fulfillment of the story of Israel. At the same time, each Gospel in its plot and portrayal of Jesus remains distinctive in its own right. Yet they are not four different Jesuses, but rather four parallel portraits of Jesus, much like four stained-glass windows or four paintings depict the same person in different ways.
The Gospel of Matthew portrays Jesus as the long-awaited Davidic Messiah of Israel, with a focus on his teaching authority as a type of new Moses. The Gospel of Mark describes Jesus as the powerful Son of God and concurrently as the suffering Son of Man, whose cross reveals the reality of his identity and mission. The Gospel of Luke emphasizes Jesus’ role as an anointed prophet with a special concern for the poor and outcasts and his role as dispenser of the Holy Spirit. Without flattening the distinctive christological shape of each of the Synoptic Gospels, we could say that they focus on Jesus as the proclaimer of the kingdom of God and as king of the very same kingdom.
The Gospel of John has its own set of characteristic emphases in which Jesus’ consciousness of his divine nature and purpose is heightened. Programmatic for the entirety of John’s Gospel is the prologue in 1:1–18 about the “Word [who] became flesh,” which gives a clear theology of incarnation and revelation associated with Jesus’ coming. There is also much material unique to John’s Gospel, such as the “I am” statements that further exposit the nature of Jesus’ person and the climactic confession by Thomas that Jesus is “my Lord and my God” (20:28).
The Gospels indicate that mere knowledge that Jesus died for the purpose of salvation is an insufficient understanding of him. What is also needed, and what they provide, is an understanding of his teachings and his mission in light of Israel’s Scriptures and in view of the sociopolitical situation of Palestine. Jesus came to redeem and renew Israel so that a transformed Israel would transform the world.
Acts. The book of Acts contains the story of the emergence of the early church from Jerusalem to Rome. Even though Acts is a repository of apostolic preaching and plots the beginnings of the Gentile mission, it is the sequel to Luke’s Gospel and is very much the story of Jesus in perfect tense (i.e., a past event with ongoing significance). The most succinct summary of the Christology of Acts is in Peter’s speech in Jerusalem, where he states that “this Jesus” whom they crucified has been made both “Lord and Christ [NIV: “Messiah”]” by God (2:36). In the succeeding narratives emphasis is given to “Jesus is the Christ [NIV: “Messiah”]” (e.g., 9:22; 17:3; 18:5), which is a message pertinent to Jews and Gentiles (20:21).
Paul’s Letters. The Pauline Epistles, although they are situational, pastoral, and not given primarily to christological exposition, still exhibit beliefs about Jesus held by Paul and his Christian contemporaries. The high points of Paul’s Christology can be detected in his use of traditional material such as Col. 1:15–20, which exposits the sufficiency and the supremacy of Christ. Philippians 2:5–11 narrates the story of the incarnation as an example of self-giving love. In 1 Cor. 8:6 Paul offers a Christianized version of the Shema of Deut. 6:4. There is a petition to Jesus as “Come, Lord!” in 1 Cor. 16:22. Paul can also refer to Jesus as God in Rom. 9:5 (although the grammar is ambiguous). For Paul, Jesus is both the “heavenly man” (1 Cor. 15:47–49) and the Son to come from heaven (1 Thess. 1:10). This interest in the divine Son of God does not mean that Paul was ignorant of or disinterested in the life and teachings of Jesus. Elsewhere he implies knowledge of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Rom. 14:14; 1 Cor. 7:10–11) and refers to the incarnation (e.g., 2 Cor. 8:9; Col. 2:9).
A number of titles are used to describe Jesus in Paul’s letters, including “Lord” and “Christ/Messiah” (and variations such as “Lord Jesus Christ” and “Christ Jesus”), “Savior,” and “Seed of David” (Rom. 1:3). But probably the most apt expression of Jesus’ nature according to Paul is “Son of God” (e.g., Rom. 1:4; 2 Cor. 1:19; Gal. 2:20). This language of sonship suggests that Jesus is the means of God’s salvation and glory and is the special agent through whom the Father acts. Referring to Jesus as “Son” also underscores Jesus’ unique relationship to God the Father and his unique role in executing the ordained plan of salvation for the elect.
We might also add that Paul provides the building blocks of what would later become a full-blown trinitarian theology, such as in the benediction of 2 Cor. 13:14 and in general exhortations about the gospel (1 Cor. 2:1–5). It must be emphasized that Paul’s Christology cannot be separated from his eschatology, soteriology, and ecclesiology. The sending of God’s Son (see Rom. 8:3; Gal. 4:4–5) into the world marks the coming of redemption and salvation through the cross and resurrection of the Son, and these are appropriated by faith. Those who believe become members of the restored Israel, the renewed Adamic race, and constituent members of the body of Christ. To that we might add the experiential element of Paul’s Christology as Jesus is known in the experience of salvation, prayer, and worship (e.g., Gal. 2:19–20).
The General Letters. The General Letters (also called the Catholic Epistles) provide a further array of images and explorations into the person and work of Jesus Christ and how they relate to the community of faith. The message of Hebrews is essentially “Jesus is better!” He is better than the angels and better than Moses; he is a better high priest; he offers a better sacrifice, establishes a better law, and instigates a better covenant. This letter is a sermonic exhortation against falling away from the faith (e.g., 2:1–4), and toward that end the author sets before his readers the magnificence of Jesus Christ, who is “the same yesterday and today and forever” (13:8).
James has little christological content and focuses instead on exhortations that bear remarkable resemblance to the teachings of Jesus from the Gospels. Even so, the letter makes passing reference to the “glorious Lord Jesus Christ” (2:1; cf. 1:1).
Central to 1 Peter is the glory and salvation that will be manifested at the revelation of Jesus Christ at his second coming (1:5, 7, 9, 13; 4:13; 5:1). Much attention is given to Jesus’ sacrificial death as a lamb (1:19), the example of his suffering (2:21–23; 4:1–2, 13), and the substitutionary nature of his death (2:24; 3:18). He is the Shepherd and Overseer of the souls of Christians (2:25). Peter writes this to encourage congregations in Asia Minor living under adverse conditions, and he sets before them the pattern of Jesus as a model for their own journey.
In 2 Peter we find a mix of Jewish eschatological concepts and Hellenistic religious language, with the author seeking to defend the apostolic gospel in a pagan culture. Jesus is the source of knowledge (1:2, 8; 2:20) and righteousness (1:1). Much emphasis is given to the coming kingdom of Jesus Christ (1:11, 16; 3:10). Jesus is the sustainer and renewer of the church and also the coming judge of the entire world.
Similar themes can be found in Jude, which is addressed to a group of believers who have been infiltrated by false teachers promoting licentiousness. Jude declares the infiltrators to be condemned and calls on the believers to hold fast to the faith. Jesus is the “Sovereign and Lord” (v. 4), Jesus saved people out of Egypt during the exodus (v. 5 [but see marginal notes on the variant reading “Lord”]), the second coming of Jesus will mark the revelation of his “mercy” (v. 21), and the benediction ascribes “glory, majesty, power and authority” to God through Jesus (v. 25). Most characteristic of all is the emphasis upon Jesus/God as the one who keeps the believers in the grip of his saving power (vv. 1, 21, 23).
The Letters of John take up where the Gospel of John left off, focusing on Jesus as the incarnate Word of God. The first of the three Johannine Epistles appears to have been written in a context where a community of Christians was being pressured by Jews to deny that Jesus is the Messiah (2:22) and also by dissident docetists to deny that Jesus had a physical body (4:2; 5:6). The major focus, however, is on Jesus as the Son of God (1:3, 7; 2:23; 3:8, 23; 4:9–10, 15; 5:11) and the incarnation of God’s very own truth and love (3:16; cf. 2 John 3).
Revelation. The Christology of the book of Revelation is best summed up in the opening description of Jesus as “him who is, and who was, and who is to come,” which underscores the lordship of Jesus over the past, present, and future. John then describes Jesus with the threefold titles “the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth” (1:4–5). In many ways, the story and Christology of Revelation are paradoxical. Jesus is both the victim of Roman violence and the victor over human evil. Jesus is the suffering “Lamb of God” and the powerful “Lion of the tribe of Judah.” In Rev. 4–5 we are given a picture of the worship in heaven and the enthronement of Jesus, and yet the realities on earth are a dearth of heavenly goodness, with persecution and apostasy rampant (Rev. 1–3). This tension continues until the final revelation of Jesus, when the heavenly Lord returns to bring the goodness and power of heaven to transform the perils of the earth and bring his people into the new Jerusalem.
Summary
The primary fixtures of a biblical Christology are (1) Jesus Christ is the promised deliverer intimated in Israel’s Scriptures, whose identity and mission are anticipated and illuminated by the law and the prophets; (2) the man Jesus of Nazareth is identified with the risen and exalted Lord Jesus Christ; and (3) Jesus participates in the very identity and being of God. See also Jesus Christ.
Conversion, signifying “to turn around” or a change of course in life, is closely related to repentance, although the two are by no means synonymous.
Conversion as part of God’s saving work. Both the OT and the NT present conversion as a crucial stage of God’s saving work for people. The leading metaphor for conversion in the OT is turning back (from sin, to God), mostly conveyed by the Hebrew word shub and its derivatives (turning from immorality and injustice and toward God in Isa. 55:7; turning away from idols in Ezek. 14:6). The NT likewise uses the metaphor of turning. Another metaphor for conversion is that of birth, evidenced in concepts such as becoming God’s children (Matt. 18:3), rebirth (1 Pet. 1:3), and being born again or born from above (John 3:3).
Although the rich concept of conversion may reflect an enormous range of events and actions in one’s life, what is central to the claim of conversion appears to be a definitive and radical change in one’s beliefs and practices. Conversion typically accompanies or, in some accounts, follows repentance of one’s sinful life. The call for repentance permeates the prophetic teachings in the OT, and it is significant that both John the Baptist and Jesus began their public ministry with their own prophetic call for repentance (Matt. 3:1–2; Mark 1:14–15). What distinguishes the NT teaching on repentance from its OT counterpart is that in the OT the prophets operated with the assumption that their audience was already in the covenantal relationship with God (“return to your God” [often using the Hebrew word shub]), whereas in the NT the invitation is extended to the Gentiles to “turn to God” (see Acts 26:20). In this regard, conversion is more distinctively a NT and Christian idea, firmly rooted in the broader sense of repentance.
The idea that humans need conversion to get right with God implies that the status quo of human existence, characterized by sin, is inadequate. God therefore has taken initiative to change it radically. In this sense, conversion is fundamentally God’s work applied to humans. In addition, conversion clearly requires a human response, which can take many different forms. The emotional component of one’s conversion experience can vary: both exuberance resulting from knowing the merits of redemption and sorrow prompted by recognizing the seriousness of one’s destitution are part of the complex spectrum of emotions relating to conversion. In the account of the Philippian jailor’s conversion (Acts 16), the jailor shows his desperation to escape his present crisis, a desire to be saved, and the joy that follows his decision to turn to Christ. Zacchaeus’s conversion is noteworthy for his willful reversal of his wrongdoings at a high personal and financial cost (Luke 19:8).
The conversion experience. It will be fruitful to use the most famous conversion account in the Bible as a template to understand the conversion experience in general. The biblical record of Paul’s conversion (Acts 9:1–27; 22:1–21; 26:9–23; see also 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:8–10; Gal. 1:15–17) demonstrates at least these distinct elements: (1) encountering the unknown yet powerful (mysterious, divine, etc.) being; (2) realizing one’s wrongdoings in the past; (3) surrendering to that being; (4) hearing the call for one’s life and gaining a renewed sense of direction.
Probably echoing OT metaphors of conversion and drawing from his own conversion experience, Paul describes the experience of Gentile believers as “turn[ing] to God from idols to serve the living and true God” (1 Thess. 1:9). Paul himself had a radical “turning around” on the road to Damascus, and he explained in his account before King Agrippa that his mission, as spoken to him by the risen Jesus, was to turn Jews and Gentiles “from darkness to light, and from the power of Satan to God” (Acts 26:18). Although the accounts of individual conversion experiences show rich variations, all converts essentially have made this transition.
Conversion, signifying “to turn around” or a change of course in life, is closely related to repentance, although the two are by no means synonymous.
Conversion as part of God’s saving work. Both the OT and the NT present conversion as a crucial stage of God’s saving work for people. The leading metaphor for conversion in the OT is turning back (from sin, to God), mostly conveyed by the Hebrew word shub and its derivatives (turning from immorality and injustice and toward God in Isa. 55:7; turning away from idols in Ezek. 14:6). The NT likewise uses the metaphor of turning. Another metaphor for conversion is that of birth, evidenced in concepts such as becoming God’s children (Matt. 18:3), rebirth (1 Pet. 1:3), and being born again or born from above (John 3:3).
Although the rich concept of conversion may reflect an enormous range of events and actions in one’s life, what is central to the claim of conversion appears to be a definitive and radical change in one’s beliefs and practices. Conversion typically accompanies or, in some accounts, follows repentance of one’s sinful life. The call for repentance permeates the prophetic teachings in the OT, and it is significant that both John the Baptist and Jesus began their public ministry with their own prophetic call for repentance (Matt. 3:1–2; Mark 1:14–15). What distinguishes the NT teaching on repentance from its OT counterpart is that in the OT the prophets operated with the assumption that their audience was already in the covenantal relationship with God (“return to your God” [often using the Hebrew word shub]), whereas in the NT the invitation is extended to the Gentiles to “turn to God” (see Acts 26:20). In this regard, conversion is more distinctively a NT and Christian idea, firmly rooted in the broader sense of repentance.
The idea that humans need conversion to get right with God implies that the status quo of human existence, characterized by sin, is inadequate. God therefore has taken initiative to change it radically. In this sense, conversion is fundamentally God’s work applied to humans. In addition, conversion clearly requires a human response, which can take many different forms. The emotional component of one’s conversion experience can vary: both exuberance resulting from knowing the merits of redemption and sorrow prompted by recognizing the seriousness of one’s destitution are part of the complex spectrum of emotions relating to conversion. In the account of the Philippian jailor’s conversion (Acts 16), the jailor shows his desperation to escape his present crisis, a desire to be saved, and the joy that follows his decision to turn to Christ. Zacchaeus’s conversion is noteworthy for his willful reversal of his wrongdoings at a high personal and financial cost (Luke 19:8).
The conversion experience. It will be fruitful to use the most famous conversion account in the Bible as a template to understand the conversion experience in general. The biblical record of Paul’s conversion (Acts 9:1–27; 22:1–21; 26:9–23; see also 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:8–10; Gal. 1:15–17) demonstrates at least these distinct elements: (1) encountering the unknown yet powerful (mysterious, divine, etc.) being; (2) realizing one’s wrongdoings in the past; (3) surrendering to that being; (4) hearing the call for one’s life and gaining a renewed sense of direction.
Probably echoing OT metaphors of conversion and drawing from his own conversion experience, Paul describes the experience of Gentile believers as “turn[ing] to God from idols to serve the living and true God” (1 Thess. 1:9). Paul himself had a radical “turning around” on the road to Damascus, and he explained in his account before King Agrippa that his mission, as spoken to him by the risen Jesus, was to turn Jews and Gentiles “from darkness to light, and from the power of Satan to God” (Acts 26:18). Although the accounts of individual conversion experiences show rich variations, all converts essentially have made this transition.
Conversion, signifying “to turn around” or a change of course in life, is closely related to repentance, although the two are by no means synonymous.
Conversion as part of God’s saving work. Both the OT and the NT present conversion as a crucial stage of God’s saving work for people. The leading metaphor for conversion in the OT is turning back (from sin, to God), mostly conveyed by the Hebrew word shub and its derivatives (turning from immorality and injustice and toward God in Isa. 55:7; turning away from idols in Ezek. 14:6). The NT likewise uses the metaphor of turning. Another metaphor for conversion is that of birth, evidenced in concepts such as becoming God’s children (Matt. 18:3), rebirth (1 Pet. 1:3), and being born again or born from above (John 3:3).
Although the rich concept of conversion may reflect an enormous range of events and actions in one’s life, what is central to the claim of conversion appears to be a definitive and radical change in one’s beliefs and practices. Conversion typically accompanies or, in some accounts, follows repentance of one’s sinful life. The call for repentance permeates the prophetic teachings in the OT, and it is significant that both John the Baptist and Jesus began their public ministry with their own prophetic call for repentance (Matt. 3:1–2; Mark 1:14–15). What distinguishes the NT teaching on repentance from its OT counterpart is that in the OT the prophets operated with the assumption that their audience was already in the covenantal relationship with God (“return to your God” [often using the Hebrew word shub]), whereas in the NT the invitation is extended to the Gentiles to “turn to God” (see Acts 26:20). In this regard, conversion is more distinctively a NT and Christian idea, firmly rooted in the broader sense of repentance.
The idea that humans need conversion to get right with God implies that the status quo of human existence, characterized by sin, is inadequate. God therefore has taken initiative to change it radically. In this sense, conversion is fundamentally God’s work applied to humans. In addition, conversion clearly requires a human response, which can take many different forms. The emotional component of one’s conversion experience can vary: both exuberance resulting from knowing the merits of redemption and sorrow prompted by recognizing the seriousness of one’s destitution are part of the complex spectrum of emotions relating to conversion. In the account of the Philippian jailor’s conversion (Acts 16), the jailor shows his desperation to escape his present crisis, a desire to be saved, and the joy that follows his decision to turn to Christ. Zacchaeus’s conversion is noteworthy for his willful reversal of his wrongdoings at a high personal and financial cost (Luke 19:8).
The conversion experience. It will be fruitful to use the most famous conversion account in the Bible as a template to understand the conversion experience in general. The biblical record of Paul’s conversion (Acts 9:1–27; 22:1–21; 26:9–23; see also 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:8–10; Gal. 1:15–17) demonstrates at least these distinct elements: (1) encountering the unknown yet powerful (mysterious, divine, etc.) being; (2) realizing one’s wrongdoings in the past; (3) surrendering to that being; (4) hearing the call for one’s life and gaining a renewed sense of direction.
Probably echoing OT metaphors of conversion and drawing from his own conversion experience, Paul describes the experience of Gentile believers as “turn[ing] to God from idols to serve the living and true God” (1 Thess. 1:9). Paul himself had a radical “turning around” on the road to Damascus, and he explained in his account before King Agrippa that his mission, as spoken to him by the risen Jesus, was to turn Jews and Gentiles “from darkness to light, and from the power of Satan to God” (Acts 26:18). Although the accounts of individual conversion experiences show rich variations, all converts essentially have made this transition.
Jesus Christ is the centerpiece of the Christian Scriptures. The meaning and interpretation of both Testaments is properly grasped only in light of the person and work of Jesus Christ. That is not to say that the Testaments testify to Jesus Christ in the exact same way; they obviously do not, but both Testaments are part of the inscripturated revelation that, in light of the incarnation, proclaims Jesus Christ to be the fullest manifestation of God given to humankind.
Old Testament
According to the Scriptures. The early Christians were adamant that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ happened “according to the Scriptures” (1 Cor. 15:3–4), which meant that these events lined up with Israel’s sacred traditions. On the road to Emmaus the risen Jesus explained to the two travelers the things concerning himself “beginning with Moses and all the Prophets,” in relation to the death and glorification of the Messiah (Luke 24:27). In one of the major Johannine discourses, Jesus tells the Pharisees that the Scriptures “testify about me” (John 5:39). Early Christian authors could find certain key texts that demonstrated the conformity of the Christ-event to the pattern of Israel’s Scriptures, such as Pss. 2; 110; 118; Isa. 53. Yet much of the OT can be understood without mention of Jesus Christ in relation to its own historical context, and there is the danger of overly allegorizing OT texts in order to make them say something about Jesus Christ and the church.
The relationship between the Testaments. The way that the NT authors echo, allude to, quote, and interpret the OT is a complex matter, but at least two points need to be made about the relationship between the two Testaments.
First, the OT anticipates and illuminates the coming of Jesus Christ. “Anticipate” does not mean “predict,” but the law and the prophets foreshadow the offices and identity of Jesus Christ. The offices of prophet, priest, and king in the OT prefigure the ministry of Christ, who is the one who reveals God, intercedes on behalf of humankind, and is the Messiah and Lord. The sacrificial cultus, with the necessity of shedding blood for the removal of sin, prefigures the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ. This is why the law is a “shadow” of the one who was to come (Col. 2:17; Heb. 10:1). “Illuminate” means that certain OT texts, though not referring to Jesus in their historical or literary context, explain aspects of his person and work. This is seen most clearly in the way that the psalms are used in the NT. Texts such as Pss. 2:7; 110:1–4 provided biblical categories that explained the nature of Jesus’ sonship, the quality of his priestly ministry, and his installation as God’s vice-regent.
Second, we should differentiate between prophecy and typology. The prophetic promises in Ezek. 37; Amos 9; and Mic. 4 about a future Davidic king whom God will use to save and restore Israel are genuine prophecies that look forward to a future event yet to be fulfilled. These texts set forth the job description of the Messiah as the renewal and restoration of Israel from bondage and exile. It is unsurprising then that in Acts, James the brother of Jesus could cite Amos 9:11–12 as proof that Gentiles should be accepted into the people of God with the coming of the Messiah (Acts 15:15–18).
Typological interpretation, on the other hand, sees OT persons, places, or events as prototypes or patterns of NT persons, places, or events. For example, in Rom. 5:14 Paul says that Adam is a “type” or “pattern” of the one to come. Similarly, Matthew’s use of Isa. 7:14 in Matt. 1:23 is also typological rather than prophetic. In the context of Isaiah, the promise refers to a child born during the reign of King Ahaz as a sign that the Judean kingdom will survive the Assyrian onslaught. Matthew’s citation does not demand an exact correspondence of events as much as it postulates a correlation of patterns or types between Isaiah’s narrative and the Matthean birth story. The coming of God’s Son, the manifestation of God’s presence, and the rescue of Israel through a child born to a young girl bring to Matthew’s mind Isa. 7 as an obvious prophetic precedent, repeated at a new juncture of redemptive history.
A Christology of the Old Testament. The NT authors interpreted the OT in search of answers to questions pertaining to the identity and ministry of Jesus Christ, the nature of the people of God, and the arrival of the new age. They detected patterns in the OT that were repeated or recapitulated in Jesus’ own person. They proclaimed that the prophetic promises made to Israel had been made good in Jesus Christ, and they found allusions to the various events of his life, death, and exaltation. Jesus and Israel’s Scriptures became a mutually interpretive spiral whereby the Christians began to understand the OT in light of Jesus and understood Jesus in light of the OT. In this canonical setting we can legitimately develop a “Christology of the Old Testament.”
New Testament
The Gospels. The canonical Gospels are four ancient biographies that pay attention to the history and significance of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. They represent a testimony to Jesus and embody the collective memory of his person and actions as they were transmitted and interpreted by Christians in the Greco-Roman world of the mid- to late first century.
All four Gospels follow the same basic outline by variably detailing Jesus’ ministry, passion, and exaltation, and all of them place the story of Jesus in the context of the fulfillment of the story of Israel. At the same time, each Gospel in its plot and portrayal of Jesus remains distinctive in its own right. Yet they are not four different Jesuses, but rather four parallel portraits of Jesus, much like four stained-glass windows or four paintings depict the same person in different ways.
The Gospel of Matthew portrays Jesus as the long-awaited Davidic Messiah of Israel, with a focus on his teaching authority as a type of new Moses. The Gospel of Mark describes Jesus as the powerful Son of God and concurrently as the suffering Son of Man, whose cross reveals the reality of his identity and mission. The Gospel of Luke emphasizes Jesus’ role as an anointed prophet with a special concern for the poor and outcasts and his role as dispenser of the Holy Spirit. Without flattening the distinctive christological shape of each of the Synoptic Gospels, we could say that they focus on Jesus as the proclaimer of the kingdom of God and as king of the very same kingdom.
The Gospel of John has its own set of characteristic emphases in which Jesus’ consciousness of his divine nature and purpose is heightened. Programmatic for the entirety of John’s Gospel is the prologue in 1:1–18 about the “Word [who] became flesh,” which gives a clear theology of incarnation and revelation associated with Jesus’ coming. There is also much material unique to John’s Gospel, such as the “I am” statements that further exposit the nature of Jesus’ person and the climactic confession by Thomas that Jesus is “my Lord and my God” (20:28).
The Gospels indicate that mere knowledge that Jesus died for the purpose of salvation is an insufficient understanding of him. What is also needed, and what they provide, is an understanding of his teachings and his mission in light of Israel’s Scriptures and in view of the sociopolitical situation of Palestine. Jesus came to redeem and renew Israel so that a transformed Israel would transform the world.
Acts. The book of Acts contains the story of the emergence of the early church from Jerusalem to Rome. Even though Acts is a repository of apostolic preaching and plots the beginnings of the Gentile mission, it is the sequel to Luke’s Gospel and is very much the story of Jesus in perfect tense (i.e., a past event with ongoing significance). The most succinct summary of the Christology of Acts is in Peter’s speech in Jerusalem, where he states that “this Jesus” whom they crucified has been made both “Lord and Christ [NIV: “Messiah”]” by God (2:36). In the succeeding narratives emphasis is given to “Jesus is the Christ [NIV: “Messiah”]” (e.g., 9:22; 17:3; 18:5), which is a message pertinent to Jews and Gentiles (20:21).
Paul’s Letters. The Pauline Epistles, although they are situational, pastoral, and not given primarily to christological exposition, still exhibit beliefs about Jesus held by Paul and his Christian contemporaries. The high points of Paul’s Christology can be detected in his use of traditional material such as Col. 1:15–20, which exposits the sufficiency and the supremacy of Christ. Philippians 2:5–11 narrates the story of the incarnation as an example of self-giving love. In 1 Cor. 8:6 Paul offers a Christianized version of the Shema of Deut. 6:4. There is a petition to Jesus as “Come, Lord!” in 1 Cor. 16:22. Paul can also refer to Jesus as God in Rom. 9:5 (although the grammar is ambiguous). For Paul, Jesus is both the “heavenly man” (1 Cor. 15:47–49) and the Son to come from heaven (1 Thess. 1:10). This interest in the divine Son of God does not mean that Paul was ignorant of or disinterested in the life and teachings of Jesus. Elsewhere he implies knowledge of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Rom. 14:14; 1 Cor. 7:10–11) and refers to the incarnation (e.g., 2 Cor. 8:9; Col. 2:9).
A number of titles are used to describe Jesus in Paul’s letters, including “Lord” and “Christ/Messiah” (and variations such as “Lord Jesus Christ” and “Christ Jesus”), “Savior,” and “Seed of David” (Rom. 1:3). But probably the most apt expression of Jesus’ nature according to Paul is “Son of God” (e.g., Rom. 1:4; 2 Cor. 1:19; Gal. 2:20). This language of sonship suggests that Jesus is the means of God’s salvation and glory and is the special agent through whom the Father acts. Referring to Jesus as “Son” also underscores Jesus’ unique relationship to God the Father and his unique role in executing the ordained plan of salvation for the elect.
We might also add that Paul provides the building blocks of what would later become a full-blown trinitarian theology, such as in the benediction of 2 Cor. 13:14 and in general exhortations about the gospel (1 Cor. 2:1–5). It must be emphasized that Paul’s Christology cannot be separated from his eschatology, soteriology, and ecclesiology. The sending of God’s Son (see Rom. 8:3; Gal. 4:4–5) into the world marks the coming of redemption and salvation through the cross and resurrection of the Son, and these are appropriated by faith. Those who believe become members of the restored Israel, the renewed Adamic race, and constituent members of the body of Christ. To that we might add the experiential element of Paul’s Christology as Jesus is known in the experience of salvation, prayer, and worship (e.g., Gal. 2:19–20).
The General Letters. The General Letters (also called the Catholic Epistles) provide a further array of images and explorations into the person and work of Jesus Christ and how they relate to the community of faith. The message of Hebrews is essentially “Jesus is better!” He is better than the angels and better than Moses; he is a better high priest; he offers a better sacrifice, establishes a better law, and instigates a better covenant. This letter is a sermonic exhortation against falling away from the faith (e.g., 2:1–4), and toward that end the author sets before his readers the magnificence of Jesus Christ, who is “the same yesterday and today and forever” (13:8).
James has little christological content and focuses instead on exhortations that bear remarkable resemblance to the teachings of Jesus from the Gospels. Even so, the letter makes passing reference to the “glorious Lord Jesus Christ” (2:1; cf. 1:1).
Central to 1 Peter is the glory and salvation that will be manifested at the revelation of Jesus Christ at his second coming (1:5, 7, 9, 13; 4:13; 5:1). Much attention is given to Jesus’ sacrificial death as a lamb (1:19), the example of his suffering (2:21–23; 4:1–2, 13), and the substitutionary nature of his death (2:24; 3:18). He is the Shepherd and Overseer of the souls of Christians (2:25). Peter writes this to encourage congregations in Asia Minor living under adverse conditions, and he sets before them the pattern of Jesus as a model for their own journey.
In 2 Peter we find a mix of Jewish eschatological concepts and Hellenistic religious language, with the author seeking to defend the apostolic gospel in a pagan culture. Jesus is the source of knowledge (1:2, 8; 2:20) and righteousness (1:1). Much emphasis is given to the coming kingdom of Jesus Christ (1:11, 16; 3:10). Jesus is the sustainer and renewer of the church and also the coming judge of the entire world.
Similar themes can be found in Jude, which is addressed to a group of believers who have been infiltrated by false teachers promoting licentiousness. Jude declares the infiltrators to be condemned and calls on the believers to hold fast to the faith. Jesus is the “Sovereign and Lord” (v. 4), Jesus saved people out of Egypt during the exodus (v. 5 [but see marginal notes on the variant reading “Lord”]), the second coming of Jesus will mark the revelation of his “mercy” (v. 21), and the benediction ascribes “glory, majesty, power and authority” to God through Jesus (v. 25). Most characteristic of all is the emphasis upon Jesus/God as the one who keeps the believers in the grip of his saving power (vv. 1, 21, 23).
The Letters of John take up where the Gospel of John left off, focusing on Jesus as the incarnate Word of God. The first of the three Johannine Epistles appears to have been written in a context where a community of Christians was being pressured by Jews to deny that Jesus is the Messiah (2:22) and also by dissident docetists to deny that Jesus had a physical body (4:2; 5:6). The major focus, however, is on Jesus as the Son of God (1:3, 7; 2:23; 3:8, 23; 4:9–10, 15; 5:11) and the incarnation of God’s very own truth and love (3:16; cf. 2 John 3).
Revelation. The Christology of the book of Revelation is best summed up in the opening description of Jesus as “him who is, and who was, and who is to come,” which underscores the lordship of Jesus over the past, present, and future. John then describes Jesus with the threefold titles “the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth” (1:4–5). In many ways, the story and Christology of Revelation are paradoxical. Jesus is both the victim of Roman violence and the victor over human evil. Jesus is the suffering “Lamb of God” and the powerful “Lion of the tribe of Judah.” In Rev. 4–5 we are given a picture of the worship in heaven and the enthronement of Jesus, and yet the realities on earth are a dearth of heavenly goodness, with persecution and apostasy rampant (Rev. 1–3). This tension continues until the final revelation of Jesus, when the heavenly Lord returns to bring the goodness and power of heaven to transform the perils of the earth and bring his people into the new Jerusalem.
Summary
The primary fixtures of a biblical Christology are (1) Jesus Christ is the promised deliverer intimated in Israel’s Scriptures, whose identity and mission are anticipated and illuminated by the law and the prophets; (2) the man Jesus of Nazareth is identified with the risen and exalted Lord Jesus Christ; and (3) Jesus participates in the very identity and being of God. See also Jesus Christ.
/a> Deliverance provides relief or escape from a detrimental situation or the prospect of adverse circ*mstances. There are many terms in the Bible that express this thought, such as “save,” “rescue,” “redeem,” “set free,” “bring out,” “escape,” “avenge,” “vindicate,” “preserve,” “give legal protection,” as well as “deliver.” Deliverance may come from God or humans and may be from physical temporal distress or spiritual in nature.
The principal example of deliverance in the OT is the exodus, God’s deliverance of Israel from Egypt. The greatness of this deliverance comes from several factors: (1)the extremity of Israel’s circ*mstance, which was long-term slavery to one of the world’s superpowers; (2)the extent of God’s power displayed in the ten plagues upon Egypt and in Israel’s safe passage through the Red Sea; (3)its fulfillment of a promise to Abraham, beginning the process of giving his descendants the land; (4)its foundational place in Israel’s tradition and holy days (Passover). This event becomes the main component of the historical background clause of the covenant and a reminder to covenant faithfulness (e.g., Exod. 20:2; Lev. 22:33; 23:43; Num. 15:41; Deut. 4:20; 6:12; 20:1; Josh. 24:5–7, 17; Judg. 6:8; 1Kings 9:9; Jer. 34:13; Ezek. 20:10; Dan. 9:15). When Jeremiah prophesies of the Babylonian exile and the later return from exile, he portrays it in the manner of or as surpassing the exodus (Jer. 16:14–15).
The NT continues the exodus theme in that Jesus’ death and resurrection, the foundation for salvation, coincide with the celebration of Passover. This constitutes deliverance in that all humanity is in slavery to the power of sin and subject to the penalty of death. Jesus’ death and resurrection provide the possibility of deliverance, usually called “salvation,” from the power of sin and death (1Cor. 15:51–57; Gal. 1:4; Col. 1:13; 1Thess. 1:10).
Throughout the Bible, God provides deliverers and is a deliverer (Judg. 3:15; 2Sam. 22:2; 2Kings 13:5; Ps. 40:17). The NT prefers the term “Savior,” applying it to God the Father and to Jesus Christ.
/a> Deliverance provides relief or escape from a detrimental situation or the prospect of adverse circ*mstances. There are many terms in the Bible that express this thought, such as “save,” “rescue,” “redeem,” “set free,” “bring out,” “escape,” “avenge,” “vindicate,” “preserve,” “give legal protection,” as well as “deliver.” Deliverance may come from God or humans and may be from physical temporal distress or spiritual in nature.
The principal example of deliverance in the OT is the exodus, God’s deliverance of Israel from Egypt. The greatness of this deliverance comes from several factors: (1)the extremity of Israel’s circ*mstance, which was long-term slavery to one of the world’s superpowers; (2)the extent of God’s power displayed in the ten plagues upon Egypt and in Israel’s safe passage through the Red Sea; (3)its fulfillment of a promise to Abraham, beginning the process of giving his descendants the land; (4)its foundational place in Israel’s tradition and holy days (Passover). This event becomes the main component of the historical background clause of the covenant and a reminder to covenant faithfulness (e.g., Exod. 20:2; Lev. 22:33; 23:43; Num. 15:41; Deut. 4:20; 6:12; 20:1; Josh. 24:5–7, 17; Judg. 6:8; 1Kings 9:9; Jer. 34:13; Ezek. 20:10; Dan. 9:15). When Jeremiah prophesies of the Babylonian exile and the later return from exile, he portrays it in the manner of or as surpassing the exodus (Jer. 16:14–15).
The NT continues the exodus theme in that Jesus’ death and resurrection, the foundation for salvation, coincide with the celebration of Passover. This constitutes deliverance in that all humanity is in slavery to the power of sin and subject to the penalty of death. Jesus’ death and resurrection provide the possibility of deliverance, usually called “salvation,” from the power of sin and death (1Cor. 15:51–57; Gal. 1:4; Col. 1:13; 1Thess. 1:10).
Throughout the Bible, God provides deliverers and is a deliverer (Judg. 3:15; 2Sam. 22:2; 2Kings 13:5; Ps. 40:17). The NT prefers the term “Savior,” applying it to God the Father and to Jesus Christ.
Evangelism is the proclamation of the “evangel”(Gk. euangelion), the good news, of Jesus Christ. The content of theevangel includes Jesus’ birth, which was announced as good newsto Zechariah by the angel Gabriel (Luke 1:19) and by the angels tothe shepherds (Luke 2:10). The good news speaks of the reality ofJesus’ resurrection (Acts 17:18), is described as a message ofgrace (Acts 20:24) and reconciliation to God through the sacrificedbody of Christ (Col. 1:22–23), and includes the expectation ofa day of divine judgment (Rom. 2:16). Paul preached the gospel (fromOld English gōdspel, “good news”) message, which heclaimed had its origin with God, not humans (Gal. 1:11–12). Hesummarizes this message in 1Cor. 15:3b–5: “thatChrist died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he wasburied, that he was raised on the third day according to theScriptures, and that he appeared to Cephas, and then to the Twelve.”The introduction to the Gospel of Mark (1:1) may indicate that thiswritten gospel could serve evangelistic purposes.
Evangelisticefforts in the New Testament.Numerous figures throughout the NT participated in evangelisticendeavors. John the Baptist’s preaching about the comingMessiah is described as evangelism (Luke 3:18). Evangelism was acharacteristic activity of Jesus’ own ministry (Matt. 4:23;9:35; Mark 1:14; Luke 20:1), which focused on proclaiming the adventof the kingdom of God (Luke 4:43; 8:1) and at times was targetedtoward the poor (Matt. 11:5; Luke 4:18; 7:22). Jesus commanded thosewho follow him to engage in evangelism. He sent out the twelveapostles for evangelistic purposes (Luke 9:2), and he issued theGreat Commission to this end (Matt. 28:18–20).
Themissionary enterprise recorded in Acts demonstrates the efforts ofthe earliest Christians to spread the gospel. The apostles inJerusalem (Acts 5:42) proclaimed the gospel in spite of greatopposition and persecution, and believers who were scattered outsideJerusalem because of persecution spread the gospel in new locales(8:4). Philip evangelized Samaritans and an Ethiopian (8:12, 35). Theministry of Paul and Barnabas is characterized as preaching the goodnews (14:7, 15, 21; 15:35; 16:10; 17:18). Philip, one of the sevenchosen to distribute food (6:5), was given the name “theEvangelist” (21:8). Timothy, additionally, is said to be Paul’sfellow worker in evangelism (1Thess. 3:2; cf. 2Tim. 4:5).
Evangelismwas a central part of Paul’s ministry (Rom. 1:9; 1Cor.1:17; 15:1–2; Eph. 6:19; 1Thess. 2:2, 9). He indicated anexplicit interest in sharing the gospel with Gentiles (Rom. 15:16;Gal. 1:16; 2:7; Eph. 3:8) and with those who had never heard it (Rom.15:20; 2 Cor. 10:16), and he expressed a desire to preach the gospelat Rome (Rom. 1:15). Paul wrote of the necessity of evangelism inorder for people to be saved (Rom. 10:15), and he preached the gospelmessage free of charge (1Cor. 9:16, 18; 2Cor. 11:7). Helisted the role of the evangelist in the church along with apostles,prophets, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11).
Goaland methods of evangelism.Evangelism’s goal is to spread the gospel across ethnic andreligious boundaries until it reaches all nations (Mark 13:10; Col.1:23). To this end, Acts details an intentional effort by theearliest Christians to share the gospel with those who came from bothJewish and non-Jewish backgrounds. Acts 8:25 records Peter and John’sevangelistic efforts in Samaritan villages, and Acts 15:7 identifiesPeter as an evangelist to Gentiles. An outreach specifically toGentiles is chronicled in Acts 11:20, and Paul’s intentionalprogram of traveling from city to city further contributes to thisgoal (Rom. 15:19).
Theevangelists recorded in the NT demonstrate a range of methods andapproaches to sharing the good news. They often began with a point ofcontact from the religious worldview of their audience. For instance,Philip used Scripture as a starting point in speaking with anindividual who was familiar with some portion of it (Acts 8:35).Similarly, when addressing Jews, Paul preached Jesus as thefulfillment of various OT Scriptures (Acts 13:32–41), but whenpreaching the gospel to the Greeks in Athens, he acknowledged theirreligiosity and their previous worship of one called “anunknown God” (17:22–23). Evangelists sought opportunitiesto gain an audience, and Paul even took advantage of an illness tostay with the Galatians and share the gospel with them (Gal. 4:13).Finally, much of the evangelistic work in the early church wascoupled with miraculous signs and wonders, which served toauthenticate the message being proclaimed (Rom. 15:19; 1Thess.1:5).
First Timothy, along with 2Timothy and Titus, is knownas one of the apostle Paul’s Pastoral Epistles. These lettershave earned this designation because they were addressed to pastorsand deal with particular problems that they were facing in theirrespective churches. This letter was addressed to Timothy, whom Paulaffectionately called “my son,” most likely because theapostle had led him to faith in Christ (1:18; cf. 1:2). At Paul’surging, Timothy took on the role of providing leadership to thechurch in Ephesus (1:3), which had been infiltrated by false teachers(1:3–4). Paul wrote this letter to Timothy, instructing him torebuke the false teachers in the church and to fight the good fightof faith (1:18). The apostle concisely summarized the major theme ofthis letter by saying, “I am writing you these instructions sothat ... you will know how people ought to conductthemselves in God’s household, which is the church of theliving God, the pillar and foundation of the truth” (3:14–15).
Authorshipand Date
Theauthenticity of the Pastoral Epistles has been questioned more thanthat of any of Paul’s other letters. This is due to differencesin style and theology as well as the difficulty in establishing theirplace in the travels of Paul in Acts. The letters, it is presumed,were written by a disciple of Paul after his death and were meant tobe a “testament” honoring the memory of Paul.
Despitethese claims, there is not enough evidence to overturn Paulineauthorship. Differences in theology can be accounted for by thedifferent circ*mstances addressed. Stylistic differences may havearisen from Paul’s use of an amanuensis (scribe) to write theletter, a common practice in the ancient world (see Rom. 16:22). Interms of their time of writing, the Pastorals were likely writtenafter Paul’s first Roman imprisonment and so after thenarrative of Acts. Paul expected to be released (Phil. 1:25; 2:24),and it is likely that his Jewish accusers never made the long andarduous trip from Jerusalem to Rome.
Evidencein support of Pauline authorship can also be found: (1)The manypersonal comments to Timothy (cf. 2Tim. 4:13) show that theletters are either authentic, or blatant forgeries, not “testaments”honoring the memory of Paul. (2)All of Paul’s keytheological themes appear in the Pastorals. (3)Paul makesnegative statements about himself that a disciple writing to honorPaul is unlikely to have made, for example, referring to himself asthe “worst” of sinners (1Tim. 1:15).
FirstTimothywas likely written between AD 63 and 66, after Paul’s releasefrom his first imprisonment in Rome (AD 62–63; cf. 3:14; Acts28:30–31).
Recipient
Timothycame from the city of Lystra in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). Hisfather was Greek and his mother Jewish (Acts 16:1). Eunice, hismother, and Lois, his grandmother, brought him up under the influenceof the Jewish religion (2Tim. 1:5; 3:14–15). Timothygained a good reputation among the local believers, so Paul added himto his missionary team (Acts 16:2–3). He accompanied Paulduring his second and third missionary journeys (Acts 16:3; 17:14;18:5; 19:22; 20:4). Paul listed Timothy as the coauthor or cosenderin several of his letters (2Cor. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Col. 1:1;1Thess. 1:1; 2Thess. 1:1; Philem. 1) and included him inthe greetings that he sent to the church in Rome (Rom. 16:21). Inaddition, the apostle sent his protégé as a messengerto Thessalonica (1Thess. 3:1–6), Corinth (1Cor.4:17; 16:10), and Philippi (Phil. 2:19, 23). Because Timothy was bynature shy and timid, Paul had to exhort him to use his gifts and toboldly carry out his ministry (1Cor. 16:10; 1Tim. 4:12;5:23; 2Tim. 1:6–7).
Backgroundand Occasion
Duringhis third missionary journey, Paul warned the Ephesian church thatfalse teachers would arise from their midst (Acts 20:30). After hisfirst imprisonment in Rome (cf. Acts 28:16, 20, 30), the apostleaccompanied Timothy to Ephesus (1Tim. 1:3). They discoveredthat certain teachers were spreading “false doctrines” inthe church. According to 1Timothy, these false teachingsincluded a morbid interest in myths, old wives’ tales, andgenealogies. Some were promoting controversies, meaningless talk,incorrect teaching of the law, abstinence from marriage and certainfoods, and ungodly gossip (1:3–7; 4:3, 7; 5:13; 6:4–5).These false teachers also attempted to secure financial gain bypromoting their doctrines (6:3–5). Paul hoped to visit Ephesusagain (3:14), but in the meantime he wrote this letter instructingTimothy and the church leadership to correct these problems (1:3–4;3:15).
Paul’sinstructions to Timothy were not only to defend the church from falseteachers but also to give guidelines on the proper behavior for menand women in the church (2:1–15). He gave Timothy standards forselecting godly leaders (3:1–16) and practical advice ondealing with various age groups in the church (5:1–20).Throughout the book Paul exhorts his young protégé andthe church to lead a holy life (1:18; 2:8–15; 4:12–16;6:6–8, 11–14, 20).
Outline
I.Introduction (1:1–2)
II.Warning about False Teachers and Exhortation to Keep the Faith(1:3–20)
A.False teaching and false teachers of the law (1:3–11)
B.Paul, an example of God’s grace (1:12–17)
C.Exhortation to keep the faith in the midst of apostasy (1:18–20)
III.Prayer and Proper Behavior in the Church (2:1–15)
A.Prayer in the church (2:1–7)
B.Men and women in the worship service (2:8–15)
IV.Qualifications for Church Leaders (3:1–16)
A.Qualifications for elders (3:1–7)
B.Qualifications for deacons (3:8–13)
C.The purpose behind Paul’s instructions (3:14–16)
V.Correction of False Teaching (4:1–16)
A.Apostasy and false teaching (4:1–5)
B.Exhortation to confront apostasy (4:6–16)
VI.Responsibility toward Various Groups in the Church (5:1–6:19)
A.Relating to men and women in the church (5:1–2)
B.Responsibility toward widows (5:3–16)
C.Responsibilities toward elders (5:17–25)
D.Responsibility of slaves toward their masters (6:1–2)
E.Contrasting corrupt teachers with true godliness (6:3–10)
F.Pursuing the life of faith (6:11–16)
G.Instructing the wealthy (6:17–19)
VII.Closing Admonition and Benediction (6:20–21)
Justification is an important topic because of itsrelationship to Christian salvation and sanctification. The word“justification” occurs only five times in the Bible(NIV), but related words comprise significant themes in bothTestaments. Part of the difficulty in the exposition of“justification” is English terminology. English has twoword groups that express the same conceptual range for single wordgroups in Hebrew and Greek. So in addition to words related tojustification, such as “justly,” “just,” andthe very important verb “to justify,” no discussion canavoid the terms “righteous” and “righteousness.”Care must also be exercised in allowing the biblical texts todetermine word meaning, since both “justice” and“righteousness” terminology can have contemporaryconnotations foreign to the biblical texts.
Justificationis often related to a legal setting in both Jewish and Greco-Romancontexts, with its judge, defendant, evidence, criteria forevaluating the evidence, verdicts, and the implications of verdicts.This is a good word picture for justification and is used in theBible itself. As long as the legal picture is extended to everydayaffairs, moral and ethical concerns, and different criteria forevidence evaluation, it is a fine starting point for understandingthe doctrine of justification.
Commonand Extraordinary Justification
Thesalvific importance of justification has greatly shaped theexposition that follows. Justification has been somewhat awkwardlydivided into common and extraordinary justification, with the latterbearing a significant relationship to the doctrine of salvation. Theformer is discussed only briefly in OT and NT paragraphs. In commonjustification, a person’s works or deeds are judged accordingto a standard of righteousness. Righteous deeds are judged and giventhe verdict “righteous.” Unrighteous deeds are judged andgiven the verdict “unrighteous.” Extraordinaryjustification occurs when an unrighteous person or deed is judged andgiven the verdict “righteous” by some supernaturalintervention.
Commonjustification in the OT may be described in various contexts: (1)incomparative or relative righteousness between humans (e.g., Gen.38:26; Ezek. 16:51–52); (2)in specific or concretesituations with God as judge (e.g., 2Chron. 6:23: “Judgebetween your servants, condemning the guilty and bringing down ontheir heads what they have done, and vindicating the innocent bytreating them in accordance with their innocence”; (3)inspecific or concrete situations with a human as judge (e.g., Deut.25:1: “When people have a dispute, they are to take it to courtand the judges will decide the case, acquitting the innocent andcondemning the guilty”); (4)in giving justice (e.g.,2Sam. 15:4; cf. Ps. 82:3); (5)in proving correct or right(e.g., Ps. 51:4; Isa. 43:9).
Extraordinaryjustification is much rarer in the OT. A possible example is Dan.8:14, where in a vision the sanctuary is desecrated and after a time“will be reconsecrated” or, in other terms, “willbe justified holy.” It seems quite unusual that the unholy “isjustified” as holy. In Isa. 45:25 we find the promise that “inthe Lord all the offspring of Israel shall be justified” (ESV).Another verse declares that Yahweh’s “righteous servantwill justify many, and he will bear their iniquities” (Isa.53:11). The need for extraordinary justification and the deficiencyof ordinary justification is clear in Ps. 143:1–2: “Lord,hear my prayer, listen to my cry for mercy; in your faithfulness andrighteousness come to my relief. Do not bring your servant intojudgment, for no one living is righteous before you” (cf. Job4:17; 25:4). The last phrase might be translated “no personwill be justified before you” and is cited by the apostle Paulin Gal. 2:16 (cf. Rom. 3:20).
Inthe NT, there are fewer references to common justification than inthe OT and a much greater development of extraordinary justification,predominantly in the Pauline letters (for similar concepts indifferent terms, see, e.g., “kingdom of God” in theSynoptic Gospels or “eternal life” in the Gospel ofJohn). Common justification in the NT may be described in variouscontexts: (1)in a specific situation with a human or God asjudge and a person’s behavior as the object of judgment (e.g.,Luke 16:15; 1Cor. 4:3–4; perhaps Luke 10:29; 18:9–14);(2)when “wisdom is proved right,” meaningvindicated by the results (Matt. 11:19; Luke 7:35); (3)in therelease from demands no longer binding (Rom. 6:7; cf. 1Cor.6:1); (4)in being proved morally right in fullness (1Tim.3:16; cf. Rom. 3:4).
Pauland Justification
Extraordinaryjustification in the NT is characteristic of the apostle Paul. Luke’sreport of Paul’s synagogue sermon in Pisidian Antioch concludeswith a brief overview of extraordinary justification (Acts 13:38–39).Paul proclaims that forgiveness of sins is available through Jesus.Every person trusting in Jesus is being justified “from allthings from which you could not be justified by the law of Moses”(NKJV). The forgiveness of sins leads to the verdict “innocent”even though sinners apart from Christ are guilty before God of theirunrighteous deeds.
InGal. 2:16 the verb “justify” is used three times: (1)“aperson is not justified by observing the law, but by faith in JesusChrist”; (2)“we, too, have put our faith in ChristJesus that we may be justified by faith in Christ and not by theworks of the law”; (3)“by the works of the law noone will be justified.” The statements may be paraphrased inthe active voice (expressing the implied subject) as in thefollowing: (1)God is justifying a person not by works of Mosaiclaw, but by trust in Jesus Christ; (2)God justified us by trustin Christ, not by works of Mosaic law; (3)God will justify noperson by works of Mosaic law. In Gal. 2:16, God is the subject, theagent who justifies (cf. 3:8; Rom. 3:26, 30; 4:5; 8:30, 33). Thebasis of justification is faith in Christ, not works of the Mosaiclaw. The meaning of the verb “justify” may be discernedfrom the context. This justification is related to the gospel (e.g.,Gal. 2:14) and to receiving the Spirit (Gal. 3:2, 14), and theverdict of “righteous” for the person trusting in Jesus(Gal. 2:21; cf. 3:6, 11; 5:5; 1Cor. 1:30; 2Cor. 5:21).
Justificationand righteousness are important themes in Paul’s letter to theRomans. At the beginning of the letter, Paul declares that he is notashamed of the gospel because it is the power of God that bringssalvation to all who believe. In the gospel the righteousness of Godis revealed, a righteousness that is by faith (Rom. 1:16–17).Paul argues in Rom. 1:18–3:20, a section abounding withrighteousness language, that all humanity, Gentile and Jew, is underthe power of sin (3:10), that no one is righteous (e.g., 3:10–18).All are subject to condemnation (i.e., the declaration of “guilty”and “unrighteous” [cf. 5:16]) rather than justification(i.e., the declaration of “innocent” and “righteous”).No human will be justified before God by works of the law; the lawprovides knowledge of sin (3:20).
Thestate resulting from this unrighteousness and sin is God’swrath (e.g., Rom. 1:18). It is into this situation, this sad state ofaffairs where all have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God,that the righteousness of God, God’s saving activity longanticipated in the OT, is revealed in the person and work of JesusChrist (3:21; 10:3). This righteousness is from God (3:22), arighteousness not related to human fulfillment of Mosaic law orrighteousness of one’s own (Rom. 3:21; 9:31–32; 10:4;Phil. 3:6, 9; cf. Eph. 2:8–9). This righteousness comes fromGod by trust in Christ (Rom. 3:22; 5:1; 9:30; 10:10; Phil. 3:9). Bytrust in Christ, God justifies each human in his freely given grace,whereby the human is redeemed from unrighteousness and sin (Rom.3:24).
Thedeath of Jesus is the sacrifice of atonement by which forgiveness ofsins is accomplished and made effectual in the human when one trustsin Jesus’ sacrifice (Rom. 3:25). This sacrifice demonstratesGod’s righteousness (3:26) because he justly judges human sinin Jesus. The one who had no sin of his own became sin for us (2Cor.5:21; cf. Rom. 5:6, 8; 1Cor. 15:3). In merciful forbearance,God passes over sins previously committed, delaying the execution ofhis justice, that he might justify the ungodly person who trusts inJesus’ person and work (Rom. 3:26; cf. 4:5). This justificationis of a different nature than ordinary righteousness on the humanlevel or of the kind that can be obtained by observing the Mosaiclaw. In this extraordinary justification, God reckons a humaninnocent of sin and righteous by trust and apart from works of Mosaiclaw (3:28). Both Jew and Gentile are reckoned righteous under thesame condition: trust in Jesus (3:29–30).
Althoughthe revelation of the person and work of Jesus the Messiah wasrelatively new at the time Paul wrote his letter to the Romans, Paulemphasizes in Rom. 4 that this idea of justification by trust and notby works goes back to the forefather of the Jews, Abraham. QuotingGen. 15:6, Paul demonstrates from Scripture that trust, not works,was the basis of extraordinary justification: Abraham believes God,and it is credited to him as righteousness. God justifies Abraham(i.e., God credits righteousness to Abraham) on the basis ofAbraham’s trust in God. Paul also cites most of Ps. 32:1–2,from a Davidic psalm, to further demonstrate the consistency ofjustification by faith with previous revelation. In this quotationthe crediting of righteousness apart from works is related to theforgiveness of transgression, where the verdict of the guilty becomes“innocent.” “He was delivered over to death for oursins and was raised to life for our justification” (Rom. 4:25).Extraordinary justification of unrighteous sinners leads to thetwofold verdict: innocent and righteous.
Titus3:3–6 expresses the same doctrine of extraordinaryjustification. Humanity is under sin when Jesus appears. God saves inhis mercy through Jesus, not on the basis of righteous human works.This saving activity is equivalent to being justified by Jesus’grace (3:7).
Jamesand Justification
Thereare three references to justification in James 2:14–26, whichappear at first glance to contradict extraordinary justification aspresented by Paul. In support of the claim that faith without deedsis useless (James 2:20), two questions are asked: Was not Abrahamconsidered righteous for what he did, and was not Rahab theprostitute considered righteous for what she did (i.e., justified byworks) (2:21, 25)? James 2:24 rephrases this as a proposition: aperson is justified by what he or she does, not by faith alone. Thecontext of 2:14–26 demonstrates that although the terms“faith,” “works,” and “justification”are the same as Paul’s, they have different meanings for James.Faith appears in this passage as mere knowledge (2:19), without anyimplications for living (2:14–18). For Paul, faith is a radicalcommitment of trust that submits one’s entire life under thelordship of Christ, something much different from the mere beliefportrayed as faith by James. Deeds or works in the James passage arethe concrete manifestations of what one believes (2:18). Works in thePauline justification passages are set in opposition to trust in theperson and work of the Lord Jesus. Outside of the justificationcontext, Paul is an advocate of works properly related to faith,righteousness, and holiness (e.g., Eph. 2:10; 1Thess. 1:3; cf.Rom. 1:5; 6:1–23; 8:4; 12:1–2). Justification is alsodifferent. Pauline justification most commonly relates to theextraordinary justification of declaring unrighteous sinners“innocent” and “righteous” based on trust inChrist. Justification in James has greater ties to commonjustification, focusing on the righteousness of a specific act at aspecific time.
OtherViews on Justification
Shortlyafter the age of the apostles, the doctrine of justification wasdeemphasized in many circles of church life in favor of a moremoralistic system. One group has repeatedly argued for centuries thatjustification infuses righteousness into the believer, and then thebeliever must do good works to complete justification. Thisconception fails to differentiate between sanctification andjustification and also misrepresents justification. In justificationGod declares the believer innocent and righteous, forgiving sin bymeans of Christ’s sacrifice and imputing Christ’srighteousness to the believer. This is not “legal fiction,”since justification has past, present, and future aspects (Rom. 3:30;8:30–34; Gal. 2:16; 5:5). Believers have been, are being, andwill be justified by faith in Christ Jesus. Recently, some haveclaimed that justification is related exclusively to the inclusion ofGentiles into the people of God without “works of the law,”racial and national identity markers (e.g., circumcision or foodlaws). Among the weaknesses of this view, the key one is that bothJew and Gentile are in need of extraordinary justification (Rom. 3:9,19–20, 23–26, 30; 9:30–10:13; Gal. 2:15–3:14).
The territory linking the Balkans with the Greek Peninsula.Though its borders shifted through its history, Macedonia stood northof Thessaly and mainland Greece, east of Epirus, and west of Thrace.Its topography is dominated by mountains and coastal plains along theThermaic Gulf and northern shore of the Aegean Sea. The name“Macedonia” comes from a Greek word referring to “tallones” or “highlanders.”
Cultureand Language
Ethnically,the Macedonians were composed of various groups, including Dorians,Illyrians, and Greeks. Macedonians were distinct from but related tothe Greeks. Hesiod, an early Greek poet (c. 700 BC), describedMacedonia as a “cousin” of the Greeks. To other earlyGreek writers, the Macedonians were “barbarians.”AlexanderI (r. 498–454 BC) embraced the Greek connectionto Macedonia by claiming descent from the hero Heracles. After acourt determined his claims to be true, he was permitted toparticipate in the Olympic games, an honor reserved only for Greeks.The Macedonians and the Greeks held similar religious beliefs, asboth worshiped the twelve Olympian gods in similar ways. In fact,Mount Olympus is located in Macedonia. Macedonian artwork illustratedthese shared religious beliefs as it expressed themes from Greekmythology.
TheMacedonian language was a Greek dialect with numerous Phrygian andIllyrian loanwords and elements. To combat the divisive effect ofnumerous Greek dialects, including Macedonian, Alexander the Greatspoke and spread Koine, or common, Greek. In fact, Alexander’suse of Koine Greek was the single greatest factor for the NT beingwritten in Greek.
AlthoughMacedonia had been on the fringe of Greece geographically andculturally, the Macedonians and the Greeks shared much in the way oflanguage, culture, and religion. Especially from the time ofPhilipII (r. 359–336 BC), the Macedonians embraced Greekeducation and philosophy. Alexander the Great, a student of the Greekphilosopher Aristotle, was the product of a combined Greco-Macedonianculture. Through his conquests, Alexander spread his blendedGreco-Macedonian culture, also known as Hellenism, throughout theEast, where the populace would speak Koine Greek, worship Greek gods,mimic Greek architecture, build Greek-styled cities, educate theiryoung in gymnasiums, and reexamine the world through Greekphilosophy. Differences between Macedonians and Greeks were furthermuted by exposure to much more distinctive Egyptian and Mesopotamiancultures. In the NT, “Greek” was less a nationalitydesignation (Acts 20:2) and more of a cultural designation (John12:20; Acts 14:1). Even Jews could be “Greek.”
History
Accordingto Herodotus, around 650 BC PerdiccasI, the first in theMacedonian list of kings, established the Argead dynasty, whichlasted until Alexander the Great. During the Persian invasions (c.480 BC), the Macedonians cooperated with the Persians, but they alsosecretly provided supplies to the Greeks. However, it would bethrough the Macedonians that the Greeks would achieve vengeanceagainst the Persians. PhilipII would first unite the rivalGreek city-states at the battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. AfterPhilip’s assassination, Alexander led one of the greatestcampaigns in history to completely conquer the Persian Empire, whichhad stretched from Egypt to India (1Macc. 1:1–7). BecauseAlexander had no heir, following his death the massive Macedonianempire dissolved into civil war among factions led by his formergenerals. Ultimately the rule of Macedonia and Greece fell toAntipater until his death in 319 BC. Years of conflict led to theestablishment of the Antigonid dynasty, which lasted until the Romaninvasion. PhilipV won the first Macedonian war (212–205BC) against Rome, but subsequent wars with Rome led to Macedoniabeing divided into four republics in 168 BC (1Macc. 8:5).Twenty years later Rome annexed Macedonia, and in 146 BC Rome madeGreece a protectorate administered from Macedonia.
DuringRome’s own civil wars, many of the battles were fought inGreece and Macedonia. For example, at the battle of Philippi in 41BC, Octavian defeated Brutus and Cassius, the assassins of JuliusCaesar. In 27 BC Octavian, later known as Augustus, turned Macedoniainto a senatorial province and separated it from Achaia. In AD 15Tiberius combined Macedonia, Achaia, and Moesia into one largeimperial province. However, in AD 44 Claudius again separatedMacedonia from Achaia and made them senatorial provinces. This wasthe political status when Paul traveled through “Macedonia andAchaia” during his missionary journeys (Acts 19:21; Rom. 15:26;1Thess. 1:7).
TheJourneys of Paul
Fromthe time that Paul received his vision of a Macedonian man callinghim to proclaim the gospel (Acts 16:9), Macedonia played asignificant role in Paul’s journeys and the early church. Heestablished three churches there and wrote three letters to them(Philippians and 1–2Thessalonians). Several of Paul’scompanions were Macedonians, including Sopater, Aristarchus,Secundus, and Jason (Acts 17:4–7; 20:4). In Paul’scorrespondence he spoke of Macedonia at least sixteen times in sixdifferent letters. Answering the Macedonian call during his secondmissionary journey, Paul arrived in Philippi, which was “aRoman colony and a leading city of that district of Macedonia”(Acts 16:12). There he led Lydia, the first known European convert,to the gospel. After casting an evil spirit out from a slave girl,Paul and Silas were imprisoned, and they led the Philippian jailerand his family to the gospel (Acts 16:16–40). Lydia and thePhilippian church generously supported Paul’s ministry and thechurch in Jerusalem (Rom. 15:26–27; 2Cor. 8:1–5;Phil. 4:15–17).
Paulthen traveled along the paved Via Egnatia to Thessalonica, where heestablished a church composed of “some” Jews and a “greatmany” Greeks and leading women (Acts 17:4). He stayed there atleast three Sabbaths before opposition drove him to Berea (17:1–9),where many examined the Scriptures and more eagerly accepted thegospel (17:11). From Berea, he left Macedonia for Athens and Corinthin Achaia. Paul later returned to Macedonia during his thirdmissionary journey (20:1–6).
A Pharisee commissioned by Jesus Christ to preach the gospelto Gentiles. His Jewish name was “Saul” (Acts 9:4; 13:9),but he preferred using his Roman name, especially when he signed hisletters. Actually, “Paul” was his last name. Romancitizens had three names; the last name was the family name, calledthe “cognomen.” We do not know Paul’s first andmiddle Roman name, but his last name is derived from the Latin Paulus(Sergius Paulus, the proconsul of Cyprus, had the same family name[13:7]). Most people were known and called by their last name becausegroup identity was more important in the first-century Mediterraneanworld than individual recognition. For example, when speakingpublicly, Paul did not use his favorite self-designations, “apostleto the Gentiles” or “slave of Christ Jesus”;instead, he identified himself as a Jew, a citizen of Tarsus, astudent of Gamaliel (21:39; 22:3). His social identity was embeddedin his ethnicity, his nativity, his religion. However, even thosecategories cannot adequately describe Paul. He was a Jew but also aRoman citizen. Tarsus was his home (11:25–26), but he claimedthat he was brought up in Jerusalem. He spoke Aramaic but wrote Greekletters. He was once a Pharisee but then preached a circumcision-freegospel to Gentiles. In many respects, Paul is an enigma. Who was he?What did he believe? Why did he think he had to leave his previouslife in Judaism to become the apostle to the Gentiles? Why is he oneof the major contributors to the NT even though he was not a followerof the historical Jesus?
Paul’sLife
Paulas a converted Pharisee.Paul spent the first half of his life as a Pharisee. The Phariseeswere a Jewish sect that emphasized obedience to the law of God as themeans of maintaining holiness. Practically all Jews believed thatthey should obey the law, but what made the Pharisees unique wastheir emphasis on applying all commandments, even those intended onlyfor Levites and priests, to all Jews. For example, priests wererequired to keep certain rituals of hand washing before they ate(Lev. 22:1–9; cf. Exod 30:19–21; 40:31–32). So thePharisees extended these requirements to all Israel in order to showGod how serious they were about obeying the law (Mark 7:3–4).Obedience was crucial to God’s blessing; disobedience broughtGod’s curse. Therefore, the Pharisees established manytraditions, going beyond the letter of the law, to ensure compliance.To what extent the Jewish people followed the example of thePharisees is debated, but certainly it appeared to the people that noone was more zealous for God and his law than the Pharisees—azeal that would compel them to join in the stoning of obviousoffenders (Lev. 24:14; Acts 7:58). As a Pharisee, Paul’s zealfor the law led him to persecute Jewish Christians, not only inJerusalem but also outside Israel, in places such as Damascus (Acts8:3; 9:1–3; 22:4–5; Gal. 1:13–14; Phil. 3:6).Neither Paul nor Luke explains what the Pharisees found objectionableabout this Jewish movement known as “the Way.” In fact,Paul’s teacher, Gamaliel, advised the Sanhedrin to ignoremembers of the Way and not make trouble for them (Acts5:34–39)—advice obviously not taken by Paul. Perhaps itwas Jesus’ reputation as a lawbreaker or the fact that he haddied a cursed death according to the law that convinced Paul toimprison Jesus’ disciples (Deut. 21:23). Whatever the reason,Paul saw his role as persecutor of the church as the ultimate proofof his blamelessness under the law (Phil. 3:6).
AfterChrist appeared to Paul on the road to Damascus, everything changed:his life, his mission, his worldview (Acts 9:3–30). Paul leftPharisaism and immediately began preaching the gospel (Gal. 1:11–17).Those whom he persecuted were now friends. His zeal for the law wasreplaced by his zeal for Christ. It was a radical reversal. The rumorspread quickly: “The man who formerly persecuted us is nowpreaching the faith he once tried to destroy” (Gal. 1:23). Whythe sudden change? Some think that it is what Paul saw—theglorified Messiah—that changed his perspective. Theresurrection of Christ turned the curse of the cross into a blessing,death into life, shame into honor. The appearance of Christ(Christophany) was a revelation, an apocalypse, an end-of-the-worldevent for Paul. Old things passed away; everything became new (2Cor.5:17). What was divided under the old age of the law—Jews andGentiles, male and female, slave and free—was united in Christ.Other scholars emphasize it is what Paul heard during theChristophany that changed the course of his life. Paul interpretedChrist’s charge, “Go, preach to the Gentiles,” as aprophetic calling, perhaps even fulfilling Isaiah’s end-timevision of salvation of the whole world (Isa. 49:1–7; Gal.1:15–16). Thus, Paul’s westward push to take the gospelto the coastlands (Spain) was by divine design (Rom. 15:15–24).God commissioned Saul the Pharisee of the Jews to become Paul theapostle to the Gentiles because “the culmination of the ageshas come” (1Cor. 10:11).
Paul’sministry.By our best estimates, Paul spent about thirty years preaching thegospel of Jesus Christ (AD 34–67)—a ministry that can bedivided roughly into three decades. The first decade of his ministry(AD 34–46) has been called the “silent years,” aswe have few details from Acts or the Pauline Epistles about hisactivities. For example, we know that he preached in Damascus for awhile and spent some time in Arabia (a total of three years [Gal.1:17–18]). He made a quick trip to Jerusalem to meet Peter andJames the brother of Jesus. Then he returned home to Tarsus,evidently preaching there for several years, until Barnabas broughthim to Antioch in Syria to help with the ministry of this mixedcongregation of Jews and Gentiles (Acts 9:26–30; 11:25–26).In the second decade of his ministry (AD 46–59), Paul spentmost of his life on the road, an itinerant ministry of preaching thegospel and planting churches from Cyprus to Corinth. For most of thethird decade (AD 59–67), Paul ministered the gospel fromprison, spending over two years imprisoned in Caesarea, another twoto three years in a Roman prison (Acts ends here), released for abrief time (two years?) before his final arrest and imprisonment inRome, where, according to church tradition, he was executed.
Duringhis itinerant ministry, Paul traveled Roman roads that led him tofree cities (Ephesus, Thessalonica, Athens) and Roman colonies(Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe, Troas, Philippi, Corinth).Founding churches in urban centers afforded Paul more opportunitiesfor ministry and for his work of making and repairing tents.Traveling within the borders of the Roman Empire also provided abetter chance of protection as a citizen. At first, Paul and Barnabascovered familiar territory: Cyprus (Barnabas’s home region) andAnatolia (Paul’s home region). Then, with successive journeysPaul and other missionary companions branched out to Asia Minor,Macedonia, and Achaia. Some of the towns that Paul visited were smalland provincial (Derbe, Lystra); others were major cities of greateconomic and intellectual commerce (Ephesus, Corinth, Athens). In themidst of such cultural diversity, Paul found receptive ears among avariety of ethnic groups: Gauls, Phrygians and Lycaonians, Greeks,Romans, and Jews. Previously, Paul’s Gentile converts hadworshiped many gods (local, ethnic, and imperial), offered sacrificesat many shrines and temples, and joined in all the religiousfestivals (often involving immoral and ungodly practices). Afterbelieving the gospel, Paul’s predominantly Gentile churchesturned from their idolatrous ways to serve “the living and trueGod” (1Thess. 1:9). Their exclusive devotion to one Godquickly led to economic and political problems, for both Paul’sconverts and the cities of their residence. No more offerings forpatron gods, no more support for local synagogues or the imperialcult—Paul’s converts were often persecuted for theirnewly found faith by local religious guilds (idol makers!) and civicleaders courting Roman favor (Acts 17:6–9; 19:23–41;Phil. 1:27–30; 1Thess. 2:14–16). Indeed, Paul oftenwas run out of town as a troublemaker who preached a message thatthreatened both the Jewish and the Roman ways of life (Acts 16:19–24;Phil. 3:17–4:1). It is no wonder that Paul’s activitieseventually landed him in a Roman prison. It was only a matter of timebefore his reputation as a “lawbreaker” caught up withhim (Acts 21:21). But that did not stop Paul. Whether as a prisoneror a free man, Paul proclaimed the gospel of Jesus Christ until theday he died.
Paul’sGospel
Thesources of Paul’s gospel.Paul ministered his entire life without the benefit of literaryGospels. Most scholars think that the earliest Gospel, Mark, waswritten about the time that Paul was martyred. Since Paul was not adisciple of Jesus and probably never heard him speak or witnessed hisearthly ministry, how did Paul know what to preach? Where did Paulget his gospel? Paul mentioned four sources. First, he received oraltraditions about Jesus from other Christians (1Cor. 15:1–7).For him, hearing what happened during the Lord’s Supper fromthose who followed Jesus was the same as receiving it from the Lord(1Cor. 11:23). Second, the Hebrew Scriptures were a majorsource of Paul’s gospel (Acts 17:2). Illumined by the HolySpirit, Paul saw the gospel proclaimed in the law (Rom. 10:6–8)and predicted by the prophets (15:12). Third, in addition to theChristophany on the road to Damascus, Paul experienced revelations ofChrist as epiphanies of the gospel (Acts 18:9–10; 26:18). Thisgave Paul the authority to claim that he received his gospelpreeminently from Christ (Gal. 1:1, 16; 2:2). Fourth, Paul saw lifeexperiences as a resource for the gospel (2Cor. 12:7–10).As Paul made sense of what happened to him, he shared these insightswith his converts as proof that “Christ is speaking through me”(2Cor. 13:3–4). Indeed, Paul’s ways of doing thegospel were to be taught in all the churches as gospel truth (1Cor.4:17), because as far as Paul was concerned, the gospel of JesusChrist was the gospel according to Paul.
Thedeath and resurrection of Jesus Christ.The center of Paul’s gospel was the death and resurrection ofJesus. The essence of what he preached was “Jesus Christ andhim crucified” (1Cor. 2:2). Furthermore, the resurrectionof Christ was indispensable to the gospel that Paul proclaimed.Without the resurrection, Paul argued, faith in Christ would be vainbecause believers would still be dead in their sins with no hope oflife after death—the resurrection of their bodies (1Cor.15:13–19). Exploring the center, Paul used several metaphorsdrawn from everyday life to explain the significance of Christ’swork on the cross. Paul used legal terms such as“justification”/“righteousness,” “law,”and “condemnation” when he explained how sinners arejustified by faith in Christ. Paul described the implications ofChrist’s death in religious terms, using words such as“sacrifice,” “sin,”“propitiation”/“expiation” (NIV: “sacrificeof atonement”), and “temple,” which would makesense to both Jews and Gentiles. He also borrowed words from theworld of commerce, such as “redemption,” “purchase,”and “slave,” especially when he emphasized the obedienceof Christ, of Paul, of all believers. He even used military terms todescribe how God turned enemies into friends through the cross: the“reconciliation” that came through the “victory”of Christ’s death when he “disarmed” the “powers.”
Paulalso relied heavily on Jewish theology as he sorted out the work ofGod in Christ Jesus. Paul was a monotheist but attributed divinestatus to Jesus (Phil. 2:6). Paul believed that Israel was God’schosen people but maintained that his Gentile converts were theelect, calling them the “Israel of God” (Gal. 6:16). Paulaffirmed the law was holy but argued that holiness came only throughthe indwelling Spirit (Rom. 7:12; 1Thess. 4:7–8). Paulbelieved that the Messiah’s appearance would bring about theend of the world but looked forward to Christ’s parousia(“appearance”) at the end of time. In other words, theperson and work of Christ formed the lens through which Paulinterpreted the Bible and made sense of the world. Indeed, Paul’sgospel was built on a foundation of Jewish doctrine, Jesus tradition,and religious experience.
Away of life.For Paul, the gospel was more than a set of beliefs; it was a way oflife. To believe in Christ Jesus not only entailed accepting hissacrificial death as atonement for sin but also meant followingChrist by taking up his cross—a life of sacrifice. Paulbelieved that he experienced the cross of Christ every time heendured hardship, every time he was persecuted, every time hesuffered loss (Phil. 3:7–11). And it was in the crucified lifethat Paul found resurrection power (3:12–21). The gospel wasthe divine paradigm for living. What happened to Christ is whathappened to Paul, and what happened to Paul is what would happen toall his converts. “Follow my example,” he wrote, “asI follow the example of Christ” (1Cor. 11:1). In fact,Paul believed that all Christians were constantly being conformed tothe image of God’s Son (Rom. 8:29). He was convinced that Godwould finish what he had started: the perfecting of his convertsuntil the day of Christ’s return and the resurrection of everybeliever (Phil. 1:6; 3:21). The only thing that his converts neededto imitate Christ was the indwelling power of his Spirit (the HolySpirit), the example of Paul’s life, and a letter every now andthen from their apostle.
Paul’sLetters
Paulsent letters to churches and individuals to inform his converts ofhis situation, offer encouragement, answer questions, and addressproblems that developed while he was away. There are thirteen lettersof Paul in the New Testament. Nine were written to churches or groupsof churches (Romans; 1 and 2Corinthians; Galatians; Ephesians;Philippians; Colossions; 1 and 2Thessalonians) and four toindividuals (1 and 2Timothy; Titus; Philemon).
Paulthe apostle.In most of his letters, Paul was on the defense: defending hisapostleship, defending his itinerary, defending his gospel.Evidently, Paul’s opponents questioned whether Paul deserved tobe called “apostle,” since he had not followed thehistorical Jesus and used to persecute the church (1Cor.15:8–9). According to Acts, when the first Christians decidedto replace Judas Iscariot as one of the twelve apostles, theyestablished the following criterion: the candidate must have been afollower of Jesus from his baptism to his ascension (Acts 1:21–22).Two men were qualified; one was chosen by divine lot, implying thatthere could be only twelve. Did the early church’s decision torecognize only twelve apostles define apostleship once and for all?Paul did not think so. He recognized the significance of the Twelve,but he believed that there were other apostles as well: Bar-na-bas,James the brother of Jesus, and himself (1Cor. 15:5–9;Gal. 2:8–9). Paul knew that there were false apostles causingtrouble in the churches (2Cor. 11:13), some even carrying“letters of recommendation” (2Cor. 3:1). But onlythose who had seen the resurrected Christ and were commissioned byhim to preach the gospel were legitimate apostles (1Cor.9:1–2). The signs of apostleship were evident when thecommission was fulfilled: planting churches and dispensing the Spirit(2Cor. 3:2; 12:12; Gal. 3:5). Of all people, Paul’sconverts should have never questioned the authority of their apostle.They were the proof of his apostleship.
AlthoughPaul never mentioned this, the fact that he sent letters is evidenceof his apostleship. Paul believed that the obedience of Gentileconverts was his responsibility, a confirmation of his calling (Rom.15:18–19). So he sent letters to make sure that they werekeeping the traditions that he had taught them (1Cor. 11:2).Sometimes, all that his readers needed was a little encouragement tokeep up the good work (most of 1Thessalonians and 2Timothyare exhortations to keep doing what they were doing) or a moredetailed explanation of what they already knew (Ephesians,Philippians, 1Timothy, Titus). Many times, Paul sent letters tocorrect major problems within his churches. For example, some of theGalatians were submitting to the law and being circumcised (Gal.4:21; 5:2–7). Some of the Colossians were involved in strangepractices of asceticism and angel worship (Col. 2:16–23). Someof the Thessalonians had quit working for a living (2Thess.3:6–15). And, worst of all, the Corinthians were plagued withall kinds of problems: factions, lawsuits, incest, prostitutes,idolatry. Some of the Corinthians were also espousing falsetheological ideas, such as denying the resurrection (1Cor.15:12). Other churches had problems sorting out Paul’s theologyas well. For example, the Thessalonians were confused about lifeafter death, end times, and the return of Christ (1Thess.4:13–18; 2Thess. 2:1–12), and the Romans needed,among other things, instruction about the role of Israel in the lastdays (Rom. 9:1–11:32). The fact that Paul felt obliged to sendhis lengthiest letter, loaded with some of his most sophisticatedtheological arguments, to the church in Rome, which he did not startand had not visited, says much about the way Paul saw the authorityof his apostleship. Because he was the apostle to the Gentiles, Pauloperated as if he were the mentor of all churches with Gentilemembers.
Churchunity.Paul believed in the unity of the church. Indeed, he used severalmetaphors to help his readers see why it was important that one Lordand one faith should form one church. He described the church as atemple (1Cor. 3:16–17), a family (Eph. 2:19), and abody—his favorite metaphor (1Cor. 12:12–27). Hewarned of desecrating the temple with divisive teaching and immoralbehavior (1Cor. 3:1–6:20). He rebuked his children whenthey refused to obey him as their father (1Cor. 3:14–21)or mother (Gal. 4:19–20). And, more than any other analogy,Paul likened the church to a human body that could be maimed byprejudice and threatened by sickness (1Cor. 11:17–34). Tohim, a dismembered body was an unholy body; a segregated church meantthat Christ was divided (1Cor. 1:10–13). The ethnic,religious, social, political, geographical, and economic differencesevident in one of the most diverse collections of people in thefirst-century Mediterranean world made Paul’s vision of aunified church appear like an impossible dream. Yet the apostle tothe Gentiles believed that the unity of the body of Christ wasindispensable not only to his mission but also to the gospel of JesusChrist (Eph. 4:1–6). So he collected a relief offering amonghis Gentile converts to help poor Jewish Christians in Jerusalem(Rom. 15:26–27). He taught masters to treat their slaves likesiblings (Philem. 16). And he solicited Romans to fund his missiontrip to Spain (Rom. 15:24). As far as Paul was concerned, the gospelbrought down every wall that divides humanity because all people needsalvation in Christ (Eph. 2:14–18).
Conclusion
Paulwas a tentmaker, a missionary, a writer, a preacher, a teacher, atheologian, an evangelist, a mentor, a prophet, a miracle worker, aprisoner, and a martyr. His life story reads like the tale of threedifferent men: a devout Pharisee, a tireless traveler, an ambitiouswriter. He knew the Scriptures better than did most people. He sawmore of the world than did most merchants. He wrote some of thelongest letters known at that time. To his converts, he was afaithful friend. To his opponents, he was an irrepressibletroublemaker. But, according to Paul, he was nothing more or lessthan the man whom God had called through Jesus Christ to take thegospel to the ends of the earth.
The state of remaining faithful to God in light of therevelation given to persons at their particular stage of redemptivehistory. Perseverance has always required a continued trust in God,obedience to his commands, and reliance upon his merciful provision.
OldTestament.In the OT, perseverance is related to the covenantal relationshipthat God had with his people. Abraham was the quintessential model ofperseverance, as he was faithful in waiting for God to provide himwith the heir that had been promised him. Israel had to persevere byremaining faithful to its covenant with God, which meant beingobedient to his commandments and decrees. In the subsequent historyof Israel, however, the nation lacked perseverance and fidelity andoften turned away from God to worship the gods of other nations.Indeed, the sweep of Israel’s history, according to theprophets, was that Israel had failed miserably at persevering in thecovenantal promises and thus had incurred God’s judgment (e.g.,Neh. 9:6–37; Ezek. 20:1–39; Dan. 9:4–19).
NewTestament.In the Gospels, Jesus is the ultimate example of the faithfulIsraelite and also provides many exhortations about perseverance inlight of the dawning kingdom of God. Jesus perseveres when tested bySatan in the wilderness (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke4:1–13). The parables of growth warn about those who do notpersevere in their reception of the word (e.g., Luke 8:15). Enduranceunder the duress of eschatological trials is also the means by whichone gains one’s life (Matt. 10:22; 24:13; Mark 13:13; Luke21:19). In his farewell speech in the Gospel of John, Jesus exhortshis disciples to abide in him as branches stay rooted in a vine orelse risk being cut off (John 15:1–11).
Inthe course of his letters, Paul has much to say about persevering infaithin Christ. Paul considers “endurance” (hypomonē) tobe among the cardinal qualities of a believer (Rom. 5:3–4;1Thess. 1:3; 2Thess. 1:4; 8:25; 1Tim. 6:11; Titus2:2). There is a sense in which God himself gives endurance to thebeliever (Rom. 15:5; Col.1:11; 2Thess. 3:5). Paul offers some stern warnings aboutapostasy and falling away (Rom. 11:21–22; 1Cor. 10:1–12;Gal. 5:4), but he also adds that Christians experience a sense ofassurance because God is “faithful” and will keepbelievers “blameless” on the day of Christ Jesus (1Cor.1:8–9; Phil. 1:10; 1Thess. 3:13; 5:23). Paul also writesthat nothing in creation can separate a believer from the love of Godin Jesus Christ (Rom. 8:31–39).
TheGeneral Epistles provide further teaching about perseverance. Jamescommends the virtue of perseverance that leads to maturity (1:3–4)and urges his audience to endure just as Job endured sufferings(5:11). Jude writes that believers should endeavor to “keepyourselves in God’s love” while also acknowledging thatGod himself will “keep you from falling” (vv. 21, 24).The book of Hebrews is built around the theme of perseverance andendurance, with key statements about not “drift[ing] away”(2:1) and the exhortation to “run with perseverance the racemarked out for us” (12:1).
Thebook of Revelation focuses strongly on persevering in light ofpersecution and hardship. In the letters to the seven churches thereis the repeated promise of the blessings that await those who“overcome,” which means enduring in the faith (2:7, 11,17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21; cf. 21:7). The churches of Asia Minorcorporately are admonished to remain faithful to the point of death(2:10) and in light of the coming judgment (14:12). Three times callsfor patient endurance are made (1:9; 13:10; 14:12). In Revelation,perseverance means holding to the testimony of Jesus (12:17; 17:6;19:10; 20:4).
Summary.Thebiblical teaching on perseverance attempts to balance divinesovereignty and human responsibility. The warnings of apostasy andthe promises of assurance are interwoven in such a way so as not tocompromise the grace and justice of God.
The state of remaining faithful to God in light of therevelation given to persons at their particular stage of redemptivehistory. Perseverance has always required a continued trust in God,obedience to his commands, and reliance upon his merciful provision.
OldTestament.In the OT, perseverance is related to the covenantal relationshipthat God had with his people. Abraham was the quintessential model ofperseverance, as he was faithful in waiting for God to provide himwith the heir that had been promised him. Israel had to persevere byremaining faithful to its covenant with God, which meant beingobedient to his commandments and decrees. In the subsequent historyof Israel, however, the nation lacked perseverance and fidelity andoften turned away from God to worship the gods of other nations.Indeed, the sweep of Israel’s history, according to theprophets, was that Israel had failed miserably at persevering in thecovenantal promises and thus had incurred God’s judgment (e.g.,Neh. 9:6–37; Ezek. 20:1–39; Dan. 9:4–19).
NewTestament.In the Gospels, Jesus is the ultimate example of the faithfulIsraelite and also provides many exhortations about perseverance inlight of the dawning kingdom of God. Jesus perseveres when tested bySatan in the wilderness (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke4:1–13). The parables of growth warn about those who do notpersevere in their reception of the word (e.g., Luke 8:15). Enduranceunder the duress of eschatological trials is also the means by whichone gains one’s life (Matt. 10:22; 24:13; Mark 13:13; Luke21:19). In his farewell speech in the Gospel of John, Jesus exhortshis disciples to abide in him as branches stay rooted in a vine orelse risk being cut off (John 15:1–11).
Inthe course of his letters, Paul has much to say about persevering infaithin Christ. Paul considers “endurance” (hypomonē) tobe among the cardinal qualities of a believer (Rom. 5:3–4;1Thess. 1:3; 2Thess. 1:4; 8:25; 1Tim. 6:11; Titus2:2). There is a sense in which God himself gives endurance to thebeliever (Rom. 15:5; Col.1:11; 2Thess. 3:5). Paul offers some stern warnings aboutapostasy and falling away (Rom. 11:21–22; 1Cor. 10:1–12;Gal. 5:4), but he also adds that Christians experience a sense ofassurance because God is “faithful” and will keepbelievers “blameless” on the day of Christ Jesus (1Cor.1:8–9; Phil. 1:10; 1Thess. 3:13; 5:23). Paul also writesthat nothing in creation can separate a believer from the love of Godin Jesus Christ (Rom. 8:31–39).
TheGeneral Epistles provide further teaching about perseverance. Jamescommends the virtue of perseverance that leads to maturity (1:3–4)and urges his audience to endure just as Job endured sufferings(5:11). Jude writes that believers should endeavor to “keepyourselves in God’s love” while also acknowledging thatGod himself will “keep you from falling” (vv. 21, 24).The book of Hebrews is built around the theme of perseverance andendurance, with key statements about not “drift[ing] away”(2:1) and the exhortation to “run with perseverance the racemarked out for us” (12:1).
Thebook of Revelation focuses strongly on persevering in light ofpersecution and hardship. In the letters to the seven churches thereis the repeated promise of the blessings that await those who“overcome,” which means enduring in the faith (2:7, 11,17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21; cf. 21:7). The churches of Asia Minorcorporately are admonished to remain faithful to the point of death(2:10) and in light of the coming judgment (14:12). Three times callsfor patient endurance are made (1:9; 13:10; 14:12). In Revelation,perseverance means holding to the testimony of Jesus (12:17; 17:6;19:10; 20:4).
Summary.Thebiblical teaching on perseverance attempts to balance divinesovereignty and human responsibility. The warnings of apostasy andthe promises of assurance are interwoven in such a way so as not tocompromise the grace and justice of God.
The state of remaining faithful to God in light of therevelation given to persons at their particular stage of redemptivehistory. Perseverance has always required a continued trust in God,obedience to his commands, and reliance upon his merciful provision.
OldTestament.In the OT, perseverance is related to the covenantal relationshipthat God had with his people. Abraham was the quintessential model ofperseverance, as he was faithful in waiting for God to provide himwith the heir that had been promised him. Israel had to persevere byremaining faithful to its covenant with God, which meant beingobedient to his commandments and decrees. In the subsequent historyof Israel, however, the nation lacked perseverance and fidelity andoften turned away from God to worship the gods of other nations.Indeed, the sweep of Israel’s history, according to theprophets, was that Israel had failed miserably at persevering in thecovenantal promises and thus had incurred God’s judgment (e.g.,Neh. 9:6–37; Ezek. 20:1–39; Dan. 9:4–19).
NewTestament.In the Gospels, Jesus is the ultimate example of the faithfulIsraelite and also provides many exhortations about perseverance inlight of the dawning kingdom of God. Jesus perseveres when tested bySatan in the wilderness (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke4:1–13). The parables of growth warn about those who do notpersevere in their reception of the word (e.g., Luke 8:15). Enduranceunder the duress of eschatological trials is also the means by whichone gains one’s life (Matt. 10:22; 24:13; Mark 13:13; Luke21:19). In his farewell speech in the Gospel of John, Jesus exhortshis disciples to abide in him as branches stay rooted in a vine orelse risk being cut off (John 15:1–11).
Inthe course of his letters, Paul has much to say about persevering infaithin Christ. Paul considers “endurance” (hypomonē) tobe among the cardinal qualities of a believer (Rom. 5:3–4;1Thess. 1:3; 2Thess. 1:4; 8:25; 1Tim. 6:11; Titus2:2). There is a sense in which God himself gives endurance to thebeliever (Rom. 15:5; Col.1:11; 2Thess. 3:5). Paul offers some stern warnings aboutapostasy and falling away (Rom. 11:21–22; 1Cor. 10:1–12;Gal. 5:4), but he also adds that Christians experience a sense ofassurance because God is “faithful” and will keepbelievers “blameless” on the day of Christ Jesus (1Cor.1:8–9; Phil. 1:10; 1Thess. 3:13; 5:23). Paul also writesthat nothing in creation can separate a believer from the love of Godin Jesus Christ (Rom. 8:31–39).
TheGeneral Epistles provide further teaching about perseverance. Jamescommends the virtue of perseverance that leads to maturity (1:3–4)and urges his audience to endure just as Job endured sufferings(5:11). Jude writes that believers should endeavor to “keepyourselves in God’s love” while also acknowledging thatGod himself will “keep you from falling” (vv. 21, 24).The book of Hebrews is built around the theme of perseverance andendurance, with key statements about not “drift[ing] away”(2:1) and the exhortation to “run with perseverance the racemarked out for us” (12:1).
Thebook of Revelation focuses strongly on persevering in light ofpersecution and hardship. In the letters to the seven churches thereis the repeated promise of the blessings that await those who“overcome,” which means enduring in the faith (2:7, 11,17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21; cf. 21:7). The churches of Asia Minorcorporately are admonished to remain faithful to the point of death(2:10) and in light of the coming judgment (14:12). Three times callsfor patient endurance are made (1:9; 13:10; 14:12). In Revelation,perseverance means holding to the testimony of Jesus (12:17; 17:6;19:10; 20:4).
Summary.Thebiblical teaching on perseverance attempts to balance divinesovereignty and human responsibility. The warnings of apostasy andthe promises of assurance are interwoven in such a way so as not tocompromise the grace and justice of God.
The act of repudiating sin and returning to God. Implicit inthis is sorrow over the evil that one has committed and a completeturnabout in one’s spiritual direction: turning fromidols—anything that wrests away the affection that we oweGod—to God (1Sam. 7:3; 2Chron. 7:14; Isa. 55:6;1Thess. 1:9; James 4:8–10).
Terminology.TwoHebrew word groups are associated with the concept of repentance:nakham and shub. Nakham means “to pant, sigh, groan, howl.”When used with respect to the circ*mstances of others and the feelingof sympathy that they engender, it refers to compassion. When used inreference to feelings generated by one’s own actions, it means“grief” or “remorse.” In this regard, nakhampredominantly has God as the subject. The KJV translates it aboutforty times as “repent.” While one of the senses ofnakham is that of grief over one’s actions, those actions areethically neutral: it does not presuppose that they are inherentlyevil. The NIV is correct, therefore, in never translating nakham as“repent” where God is the subject. In most cases whereGod is its subject, the term highlights God’s compassion andcomfort for the afflicted (Isa. 40:1–2; 49:13), or his griefover the dire consequences brought upon or intended for thedisobedient and his subsequent commutation of their punishment (Exod.32:12–14; Judg. 2:18; 2Sam. 24:16; Jon. 3:10), or hisgrief over human self-ruinous obstinacy (Gen. 6:6–7; 1Sam.15:11). Even in the few cases where nakham has human subjects, itneed not always be rendered “repent,” their concern forchange of heart notwithstanding (cf. Exod. 13:17; Judg. 21:6).
Theconcept of repentance is better conveyed by the Hebrew verb shub(“to turn, return back, restore, reverse, bring back”) orits noun form in rabbinic Judaism, teshubah (“repentance”).While shub has many nonreligious uses, its theological significancederives from the sense of either “turning away from God”(apostasy [cf. Hos. 11:7; Jer. 11:10]) or “turning to God”(repentance [cf. 1Sam. 7:3–4; Hos. 14:1]). Our concern iswith the latter sense, which normally would be followed by God’sreturn to his people (Zech. 1:3; Mal. 3:7).
Inthe OT, shub is central to the concept of repentance. It is the keyterm employed in the entreaty to God’s people to return to him(2Chron. 30:6; Isa. 44:22; Ezek. 14:6). The outward signs ofrepentance in the OT include fasting, mourning (sometimes whilesitting in dust or pouring ashes or dust upon one’s head),rending garments, wearing sackcloth, and offering sacrifices (Lev.5:5–12; 2Kings 22:11, 19; Neh. 9:1; Joel 2:12–17).The Israelites became so preoccupied with these outward forms thatGod told them repeatedly that he no longer had interest in them, butrather sought contrition of the heart (Ps. 34:18; Isa. 1:10–16;58; 66:2; Joel 2:13).
Inthe NT, the dominant terms used for repentance are the verb metanoeōand the cognate noun metanoia; the overwhelming majority of theseoccur in Luke-Acts. These terms are used to expressthe complete turnaround in one’s way of life, includingconversion,faith, and regeneration (Acts 2:28; 3:19; 5:31; 20:21). Occasionallythese two terms are complemented by epistrephō to stress thepositive side of repentance, that of turning from sin oridols to God (Acts 9:35; 11:21; 26:20).
Elementsof repentance.The constituent elements of biblical repentance include thefollowing: (1)A recognition of one’s sin, its damagingeffects on life and nature, its affront to God’s word andauthority, and its dire consequences (Ezek. 18:4; Rom. 3:23; 8:19–22;Rev. 21:8). (2)Personal outrage and remorse over one’ssin, grief at one’s helplessness, and a deep longing forforgiveness, reconciliation, and restoration. (3)A personalresponse to God’s grace in choosing a new spiritual directionby breaking with the past and returning to God. This includesconfession and renunciation of sin, and prayer for God’sforgiveness (Lev. 5:5; Prov. 28:13; 1John 1:9). (4)Insome circ*mstances, repentance may require restitution (Exod.22:1–15; 1Sam. 12:3; 2Sam. 12:6; Luke 19:8). (5)Atit* core, repentance is a rejection of the autonomous life and thesurrender of oneself to the lordship of Christ (Jer. 3:22; Mark8:34–38). (6)The proof of true repentance is the worthyfruit of a changed life (Luke 3:7–14; Eph. 4:17–32; Col.1:10).
Many of the letters, or epistles, in the Bible includesalutations consisting of expressions of goodwill from the sender tothe recipient. Salutations can be found at the beginning and end ofthe NT Epistles. While the salutation itself was not the invention ofthe authors of the NT Epistles, the form has been adapted in thisliterature to express explicitly Christian theological content.
Thesimplest form of salutation found in the NT is simply “Greetings,”which appears in James 1:1, as well as in the letter sent fromJerusalem to Antioch (Acts 15:23) and the letter of Claudius Lysiasto Felix (Acts 23:26). See also the examples of secularcorrespondence in Ezra 4:17; 7:12; Dan. 4:1.
Mostof the letters bearing the name of Paul begin with the greeting“Grace and peace to you from God our Father and from the LordJesus Christ” (Rom. 1:7) or a slight variation thereof (1Cor.1:3; 2Cor. 1:2; Eph. 1:2; Phil. 1:2; Col. 1:2; 1Thess.1:1; 2Thess. 1:2; Titus 1:4; Philem. 3). The salutation in Gal.1:3–5 is a theological expansion of Paul’s standardsalutation. The salutations in 1Tim. 1:2 and 2Tim. 1:2include “Grace, mercy, and peace.”
Thesalutation of the Petrine letters is “Grace and peace be yoursin abundance” (1Pet. 1:2; 2Pet. 1:2). Salutationsare also found in 2John 3; Jude 2; Rev. 1:4–5. Hebrews,1John, and 3John do not begin with salutations.
Ina number of cases, salutatory remarks function to close the letternear its end, often in connection with individual greetings. See Rom.16:20; 1Cor. 16:21–24; 2Cor. 13:14; Gal. 6:18; Eph.6:23–24; Phil. 4:23; Col. 4:18; 1Thess. 5:28; 2Thess.3:16–18; 1Tim. 6:21; 2Tim. 4:22; Titus 3:15;Philem. 25; 1Pet. 5:14.
Paul’s second letter to the Thessalonians addresses achurch troubled by an overly realized eschatology. Whereas at thetime ofthe first letter the Thessalonians were expecting theimminent return of Christ (1Thess. 5:6), by thetime ofthe second letter some believed that Christ had already come(2Thess. 2:2). Because of this, some were being drawn fromtheir work into idleness (2Thess. 3:6). Paul’s purpose,then, was to correct their eschatology, restore them to their tasks,and rebuild their confidence in Christ. He does this both byemphasizing Jesus Christ as Lord (the letter is uniquely consistentin the NT in applying the title “Lord” [Gk. kyrios] toJesus) and by describing two apocalyptic events that must happenbefore the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ: the great apostasy andthe appearance of the man of lawlessness (2Thess. 2:3).Scholars have noted that Paul most often refers to Jesus as Lord inhortatory and eschatological passages. Indeed, though brief,2Thessalonians emphasizes exhortation and eschatology.
LiteraryConsiderations
Authorshipand the question of pseudo-nymity. Asearly as AD 110, Polycarp of Smyrna alluded to 2Thessaloniansin his letter to the Philippians (Pol. Phil. 11:4), and both Marcionand the Muratorian Canon refer to the epistle. It was known toIgnatius, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Tertullian. In the modern era,beginning at the end of the eighteenth century, the Paulineauthorship of the epistle was questioned, first by J.E.C.Schmidt, then by F.C. Baur, and more fully by W.Wrede,who dated the letter to a little before the date implied inPolycarp’s letter.
Comparisonof 1 and 2Thessalonians.The case for pseudonymous authorship depends largely on a comparisonbetween 1Thessalonians and 2Thessalonians. The lettersshare a number of similarities in language, style, and content,including similarly worded salutations (1Thess. 1:1; 2Thess.1:1–2), expressions of thanks (1Thess. 1:2; 2:13; 3:9;2Thess. 1:3; 2:13), intercessory prayers (1Thess. 3:11;2Thess. 2:16), references to the broad reputation of theThessalonian church (1Thess. 1:1–10; 2Thess.1:3–4), the persecution of the Thessalonian church (1Thess.2:14–16; 2Thess. 1:5–10), divine election (1Thess.1:4; 2Thess. 2:13), references to a personalized antagonist(“Satan” in 1Thess. 2:18; “the evil one”in 2Thess. 3:3), the exhortation to avoid idleness (1Thess.4:11–12; 5:14; 2Thess. 3:7–13), a common concernfor the parousia and its anticipation (1Thess. 4:13–5:11;2Thess. 2:1–11), and a number of stylistic resemblances(cf. 1Thess. 3:11 with 2Thess. 2:16; 1Thess. 4:1with 2Thess. 3:1; 1Thess. 5:23 with 2Thess. 3:16).
Inaddition to resemblances, advocates of pseudonymous authorship haveperceived some deep discontinuities between the letters. Thequestion, then, is to devise a theory to explain both types offeatures (see below). In 1Thessalonians the parousia isdepicted as an imminent event that could occur at any moment, “likea thief in the night” (1Thess. 5:2), whereas in2Thessalonians the basic supposition is that the end will comenot unexpectedly but only following the series of public eventsdescribed in 2Thess. 2:3–4. The imminent tone of1Thessalonians can be compared to that of 1Corinthians(an undisputedly Pauline letter), while the attitude of2Thessalonians and its acceptance of an indefinite delay of theparousia find no obvious parallel in the other letters widelyaccepted as written by Paul, but have been described as best fittinga context in the last quarter of the first century, within the milieuof eschatological debate that gave rise to two other disputed Paulineletters, Ephesians and Colossians. Although we should not facilelyharmonize the differences between the letters, neither should weoverstate the imminence of eschatological expectation in1Thessalonians, where, as in 2Thessalonians, Paul remindshis readers that in fact they will not be surprised by the parousia(1Thess. 5:4)—although, admittedly, less apocalypticdetail is given than in 2Thessalonians. Moreover, both lettersgive ample attention to life in the period of eschatologicalanticipation (2Thess. 3:1–16), particularly to thetemptation to idleness (1Thess. 4:11–12; 5:14; 2Thess.3:7–13).
In2Thess. 2:2 the author warns against letters circulating inPaul’s name but falsely attributed to him. As proponents of thepseudonymous authorship of 2Thessalonians have pointed out,this problem is unlikely to have arisen during the lifetime of Paulhimself, as he would have been able to discredit such letters. Also,the handwritten signature at the end of the letter (2Thess.3:17 [the rest of the letter would have been dictated to a secretary,as in Rom. 16:22]) and the special emphasis placed on it (compared to1Cor. 16:21; Gal. 6:11; and in a disputed Pauline letter, Col.4:18) have been taken as indicating an attempt to deceive, or atleast as consistent with what a pseudonymous author would have deemednecessary to pass off the letter as the work of the famous apostle.Of course, this argument depends on the fact that Paul actually didsign some of his genuine letters in this way, though 2Thess.3:17 does admittedly go beyond the other examples listed as a pleafor authenticity, even to the point of raising suspicion. On theother hand, if falsely attributed letters were being passed around inPaul’s lifetime, the extra emphasis on his personal mark wouldbe called for.
Finally,some have described a shift in tone between the two letters, fromjoyfulness to somberness. Supposing that 2Thessalonians waswritten some years after 1Thessalonians and the death of Paul,this has been taken as a reflection of eschatological disappointmentduring the interim and a readjustment of expectations to the realityof a longer-than-anticipated delay in the parousia. However, thedifference in tone, as well as the difference in theological emphasisnoted above, might simply reflect differences in the sets ofcirc*mstances that occasioned the two letters, and the tone of bothletters could be construed as coming from the mind of a singleauthor.
Relationshipbetween 1 and 2Thessalonians.Considering similarities and differences together, the proponents ofpseudonymous authorship judge the theological, linguistic, andstylistic differences to be substantive and real and to reflect botha significant lapse in time and the work of two distinct authors. Inthis view, the long list of resemblances indicates only that2Thessalonians is a rather studied imitation of1Thessalonians. If Paul wrote both letters, why would he haverepeated so much of his earlier letter in the second and done sowithin a relatively short span of time? As alternatives to the theoryof pseudonymous authorship, several proposals have been advanced toexplain this unexpected behavior, including the notions that theletters were addressed to two groups within the city of Thessalonica(Jewish and Gentile); that each letter reflects the differingauthorial contributions from the three senders of both letters (Paul,Silas, and Timothy [1Thess. 1:1; 2Thess. 1:1]); that oneof the letters was addressed privately to a restricted group withinthe community; that 2Thessalonians was written not shortlyafter 1Thessalonians but rather following a second visit toThessalonica (see Acts 20:1–2), during which developments notrecorded in Acts would have set the stage for the distinctiveemphases of the second letter; or that reversing the chronologicalpriority of the letters so that 2Thessalonians preceded1Thessalonians provides a scenario in which the Paulineauthorship of 2Thessalonians can plausibly be maintained. Atpresent, the authorship of 2Thessalonians remains a matter ofdispute among biblical scholars.
Theologicalconsiderations.Apart from the internal evidence discussed above, the theory ofpseudonymous authorship raises theological questions. How does thepossibility that Paul did not write the letter bear on the authorityof this letter as Scripture? Is the intent to deceive as to theauthorship of the letter consistent with the belief that the letterwas divinely inspired by a holy God? In terms of its history ofreception, 2Thessalonians has the highest pedigree and, asnoted above, was alluded to as early as the first part of the secondcentury. The Pauline authorship of the book and its status in thecanon do not seem to have been a matter of dispute in antiquity.Responding to critical assessments of the book’s authorship anddate in the modern era (and more broadly to assessments of other“disputed Pauline letters”), some evangelical theologiansand biblical scholars have argued that epistolary pseudepigraphy wasnot considered respectable in antiquity; that is, such a practice wasconsidered tantamount to forgery and an intent to deceive. The earlychurch would not have knowingly accepted into the canon any letterknown to have been pseudepigraphically authored and promulgated. Inlight of this reconstruction of ancient attitudes, the proposal ofpseudonymity in the case of 2Thessalonians and other supposedlyPauline letters becomes a significant theological problem.
Inaddressing this issue, it should be noted that the concept ofauthorship was and is somewhat flexible. Paul did not likely writewith his own hand any of the letters in the NT, apart from adding hissignature at the end of 1Corinthians, Galatians, and possibly2Thessalonians and Colossians. In each instance the degree towhich the scribe or amanuensis contributed to the wording or contentof each letter (see Rom. 16:22) is unclear. In the case of2Thessalonians and some other Pauline Epistles, the letteroriginated from a group of three associates: Paul, Silas, andTimothy. It is unclear to what extent Silas and Timothy should beconsidered as having made an authorial contribution to the letter.Admittedly, the theory of pseudonymous authorship of 2Thessaloniansgoes far beyond any of these cases, since, as generally articulated,it involves dating the letter to the last quarter of the firstcentury, at least ten years or so after the death of Paul. In termsof the theological problem described above, a letter authored inPaul’s name under such circ*mstances represents a qualitativelydifferent scenario than one written by associates during his lifetimeyet ultimately knowingly authorized and sent (and signed) by theapostle himself. Still, the range of meanings entailed in the conceptof “authorship” should lead to circ*mspection inevaluating the theological implications of the theory of pseudonymousauthorship. Reducing this theory to the possible element of deceptionmay risk oversimplifying and even demonizing the motivations and aimsof the pseudonymous author. (See also Pseudepigraphy, Pseudonymity.)
Date.As is obvious from the foregoing discussion of authorship, the dateof 2Thessalonians is bound up in the question of authorship. IfPaul wrote 2Thessalonians, it would have to have been prior tohis death in the mid-60s. FirstThessalonians was likely writtenaround AD 50, and 2Thessalonians may have been written shortlythereafter, if it was written prior to Paul’s second visit tothe region of Macedonia (Acts 20:1–2), during his time inCorinth (18:1–5) or Ephesus. A second visit to the city is notmentioned in 2Thessalonians, and in contrast to the evidence ofActs 18:5 regarding the second missionary journey of Paul, we cannotwith certainty place the three authors of 2Thessalonians (Paul,Timothy, and Silas) together at a later date. Advocates ofpseu-don-y-mous authorship usually date the letter to the lastquarter of the first century in order to allow some time for thesupposed development in eschatological expectation between the twoletters, and probably also for the collection of Paul’s lettersin later years to provide the background for the reference in2Thess. 3:17 to “all my letters.” At any rate, itshould be dated prior to the composition of Polycarp’s letterto the Philippians around AD 110.
Ifpseudonymous authorship is accepted, then two passages in the letterthat refer to events after Paul’s death may bear on a moreprecise dating of the composition. First, the reference to “God’stemple” in 2Thess. 2:4, if it refers to the temple inJerusalem, would suggest a date prior to AD 70, when that edifice wasdestroyed. Second, some have argued that the reference to therevelation of the “man of lawlessness” in 2Thess.2:3 refers to an expectation that the emperor Nero was to come backfrom the dead. This would suggest a date after Nero’s death inAD 68. Both passages can be explained in other ways: the figure ofGod’s temple continued to be invoked symbolically after AD 70,and the “man of lawlessness” is obscure enough to inspirecaution in too quickly identifying him with a historical person.
Outline
I.Introductory Greeting and Thanksgiving (1:1–12)
A.Greetings from Paul, Silas, and Timothy (1:1–2)
B.Thanksgiving (1:3–10)
C.Prayer (1:11–12)
II.The Coming of Christ (2:1–12)
A.Warnings against reports that Christ has come (2:1–2)
B.The man of lawlessness and the great apostasy must come first (2:3–7)
C.God will ensure the destruction of both through Christ (2:8–12)
III.Exhortations (2:13–3:15)
A.Thanksgiving and prayer (2:13–3:5)
B.Exhortation to avoid idleness in themselves and in others (3:6–15)
IV.Closing Prayer and Benediction (3:16–18)
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1. The Pursuit of Happiness
Illustration
Leonard Sweet
“The pursuit of happiness."
It's a phrase with which every school child is familiar. But what a phrase . . . a phrase that is foundational to our national identity and part of the introductory insistence of our Founding Fathers' Declaration of Independence.
“Happiness" is an extraordinary “demand" for political revolutionaries. Equality. Democracy. Liberty. Freedom. Those are what we expect from our fiery ancestors. But life, liberty . . . and “the pursuit of happiness?" No matter how intellectually gifted, how democratically on fire, or how socially revolutionary, at some crucial point, at some heart of our humanity, all we want to do, all we want to feel, all we want is to be happy. No wonder Jesus started one of his most famous sermons with a litany of “Happy are those who . . ." (Matthew 5:1-12).
Perhaps the greatest sadness of Martin Luther, the simple monk who brought the hurricane winds of reformation to the entire continent of Europe, was that towards the end of his long and momentous life, he confessed that he could count on the fingers of one hand the days of complete happiness he could remember.
Luther measured “happiness" by the length of days. But happiness does not come neatly packaged in 24 hour increments. Happiness comes in unexpected spurts and momentary bursts. Happiness is woven into the tapestry of our life as an infusion of grace. Happiness is not something we “find." Happiness is something we cultivate on a daily basis, not for itself, but as part of a larger mission, a mission which, joyfully, sometimes gifts us with an unexpected bumper crop of happiness.
In the eighteenth century, when that “pursuit of happiness" phrase was coined, the buzzword “happiness" was loaded with meaning and merit. While Enlightenment figures applauded the pursuit of life, liberty, and the “pursuit of happiness," another Enlightenment figure, the founder of Methodism John Wesley, equated “happiness" with the way to “holiness." His phrase was “holiness is happiness," and over 70 of his sermons referenced and recommended “happiness" as the goal of the Christian life.
But for Wesley “happiness" means more than “feeling good." “Happiness" means “pleasing God." In today's epistle text Paul makes an important distinction. It's a distinction many people never make their whole life long. It's a distinction between living one's life trying to “please people" and living one's life to “please God."
Paul has no interest in living to please people. Paul seeks the stamp of “approval" from none but God. Neither offering flattery to others nor gaining praise for himself is part of Paul's mission. Paul's mission lays out what matters most: Pleasing God…
2. The Wise Old Cat
Illustration
Wise old cat observing a kitten chasing its tail:
“Why are you chasing your tail so?" asks the old wise cat.
The kitten replies, “I have learned that the best thing for a cat is happiness, and happiness is in my tail. Therefore, I am chasing it, and when I catch it, I shall have happiness."
The wise old cat responds, “I too have judged that happiness is in my tail. But I notice that whenever I chase it, it keeps running away from me. And when I go about my business of being a proper cat, it just seems to come after me wherever I go."
3. The Pauline Salutation
Illustration
At least a dozen of the twenty-seven New Testament books of our Bible were written by one man, the Apostle Paul. These books are in the form of letters written to his fellow-Christians, giving them instruction and encouragement. There is one sentence which appears in everything Paul wrote, in each of his epistles. It is this: "Grace be to you and peace from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ."
Paul always used this salutation in greeting the people he loved and cared about. And it is altogether appropriate for us as we meet and greet one another. I suppose each of us has some wish for the well-being of all the others, and of all the wishes we may wish for one another, perhaps none is more fitting than this one - the wish for the grace and peace of God.
So today I would borrow that warm and personal word of the Apostle, and by means of it greet you and welcome you to the experience we share in this hour: "Grace be to you and peace from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ." Nothing can better express what we hope will result from our worship here - that in each heart there will be peace and, for the needs of each of our lives, the grace of God.
4. What is the Penalty?
Illustration
Charles Spurgeon
"Those who choose evil shall have their choice. Men who hate divine mercy shall not have it forced upon them, but (unless sovereign grace interpose) shall be left to themselves to aggravate their guilt and ensure their doom.
"They have loved darkness rather than light, and in darkness they shall abide. Eyes which see no beauty in the Lord Jesus, but flash wrath upon Him, may well grow yet more dim, till death which is spiritual leads to death which is eternal.
"What can be too severe a penalty for those who reject the incarnate God, and refuse to obey the commands of His mercy? They deserve to be flooded with wrath, and they shall be; for upon all who rebel against the Savior, 'wrath has come upon them to the uttermost' (I Thessalonians 2:16).
"God's indignation is no trifle. The anger of a holy, just, omnipotent, and infinite Being, is above all things to be dreaded; even a drop of it consumes, but to have it poured upon us is inconceivably dreadful."
5. God's Opposition
Illustration
Albert Barnes
It is clear that when we think of the word "wrath" as applicable to God, it must be divested of everything that is like human passion, and especially the passion of revenge. It is one of the most obvious rules of interpretation that we are not to apply to God passions and feelings which, among us, have their origin in evil. [God's wrath] is the opposition of the divine character against sin; and the determination of the divine mind to express that opposition in a proper way, by excluding the offender from the favors which He bestows on the righteous. We admire the character of a father who is opposed to disorder, vice, and disobedience in his family, and who expresses his opposition in a proper way. We admire the character of a ruler who is opposed to all crime in the community, and who expresses those feelings in the law. Why shall we not be equally pleased with God, who is opposed to all crime in all parts of the universe, and who determines to express His opposition in the proper way for the sake of preserving order and promoting peace?
6. We Can't Contain God In Our Cups!
Illustration
Zan W. Holmes
One morning a little girl sat at a kitchen table to eat breakfast with her mother and father. As she listened to the prayer her father prayed before the meal, she was especially intrigued that he thanked God for God's presence everywhere.
After the father finished his prayer the little girl asked him, "Father, is it really true that God is everywhere?"
"Yes," said her father.
"Is God in this house?" she asked.
"Yes," her father said.
"Is God in this kitchen?"
"Yes," her father said.
"Is God on this table?" she asked.
"Yes," her father said.
The little girl hesitated and then asked, "Is God in this cup?"
Her father said, "Yes."
Upon hearing this the little girl quickly covered the cup with her hand and exclaimed, "I've got Him!"
In Job's attempt to make some sense out of his suffering, he tried desperately to figure God out by confining God to his own narrow conception of God. In other words, Job was trying to get God to respond within the limited confines of Job's own theological cup. In fact, Job was so certain of his theology that he believed he would prevail if his case were presented before God. To be sure, this is why he wanted to find God. He said, "Would he contend with me in the greatness of his power? No; but he would give heed to me. There an upright person could reason with him, and I should be acquitted forever by my judge" (Job 23:6-7).
Finally in chapter 38 God appears before Job as a voice out of the whirlwind: Who is this that darkens counsel by words without knowledge? Gird up your loins like a man, I will question you, and you shall declare to me. Where were you when I laid the foundation of the earth? Tell me, if you have understanding. Who determined its measurements -- surely you know! Or who stretched the line upon it? On what were its bases sunk, or who laid its cornerstone when the morning stars sang together and all the heavenly beings shouted for joy? -- Job 38:2-7
As soon as God speaks, Job realizes that he can never have the luxury of saying: "I've got God!" Indeed Job now knows that God has exceeded Job's expectations and refuses to be contained and fit neatly into any theological box that Job has constructed. So God answers Job, but not according to Job's definition of the problem of suffering. Instead God transposes the issue to another level which emphasizes God's power and divine knowledge in contrast to the human weakness and ignorance of Job.[1] In response, Job now realizes how foolish he has been to propose that he understood everything that happens. In fact, Job answers God and says, "See, I am of small account; what shall I answer you? I lay my hand on my mouth. I have spoken once, and I will not answer; twice, but will proceed no further" (Job 40:4-5).
No longer does Job seek to arrange a debate where he can instruct God. He finally realizes that it is he and not God who is unaware of life's complete picture. When we too are tempted to believe that God is bound by our theologies, rituals, denominations, and traditions, like Job, we are called to remember that God is boundless and cannot be contained in any of our cups. We cannot put God in the cup of any ritual and say, "I've got God covered." We cannot put God in the cup of any theology and say, "I've got God covered." We cannot put God in the cup of any church tradition and say, "I've got God covered." We cannot put God in any ethnic or gender cup and say, "I've got God covered."
Job learned that God stands above all human systems and wisdom. The purpose behind it all is not to answer directly the problem of suffering, but to give Job a vision of God's glory and presence with Job in the midst of Job's suffering. Thus Job discovers that he can trust God's purposes even though he cannot clearly understand them. Indeed, he comes to see that his new relationship with God will sustain him in the midst of his suffering.
Our African American forefathers and foremothers in the midst of the suffering of slavery could identify with Job's predicament. Even in the face of sorrow and suffering in the absurdity of slavery they were able to sing praises to God through the spirituals. Even though their relationship with God did not bring an immediate end to their oppressive condition, they were sustained by the faith that the cup of slavery could not contain the God of their hope and liberation. By the grace of God, it was a faith that enabled them to sing: Nobody knows the trouble I see, Nobody knows but Jesus. Nobody knows the trouble I see, Glory, Hallelujah.
1. Beverly B. Gaventa, editor, Texts for Preaching, (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993), p. 551. "
7. For A D-day Memorial - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
On our national Mall now sits 7 acres of bronze, granite, and gardens that memorializes the greatest generation, those who fought and died in WWII. Perhaps you've seen it. There are 56 tall pillars that encircle the memorial stand for the states, and districts, territories of our country. When it was dedicated the speakers ranged from General Kelly, Tom Brokaw, whowrote the book The Greatest Generation, Tom hanks who was the spokesman for the memorial, Fred Smith co-chair and Bob Dole chair of the building committee, and the Presidents Bush One, Clinton, and George W. Bush.
They have rightly been called the Greatest Generation. Here are some statistics about WWII. From 1940 to 1945
- Total service members: 16,112,566 soldiers, sailors, air forces, and marines
- Battle deaths: 291,557
- Other deaths in service: 113,842
- Non-mortal wounding: 671,846
These veterans are quickly fading but many are still alive. It gives you an understanding of how young they were then. But it wasn't only the soldiers who put forth an effort during that time, as President Bush pointed out in his dedicatory speech, there was a participation by all citizens of the United States: 60% of the vegetables grown at that time were grown in back yards and rooftops.
If there is any question as to why this period of time was so important: World wide 50,000,000 people died as a result of the war. The central focus of the memorial is the gold star war, thousands and thousands of gold stars for those who gave their lives. The marker in front says simply: "Here we mark the price of freedom."
And now on this D-Day as 1,056 of these veterans die each day let us remember their sacrifice with a moment of silence. Let us remember this the greatest of our generations.
ONE MINUTE PAUSE
Today on the beaches of Normandy the people gathergatherto talk about the fight for freedom which occurred on thisday. And the shadow of Ronald Reagan always looms large. If Normandy was the beginning of the end of the War, Ronald Reagan was the beginning of the end of the Cold War.
I remember the Berlin wall speech at the Brandenburg Gate, one of the greatest speeches ever made. The words were prophetic: General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization: Come here to this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!
Thus began the dissolution of the Soviet Union. He had a profound respect for the office he held. He never took his coat off in the Oval Office. He had a great sense of humor, which was disarming. When he was in the emergency room after nearly being assassinated, his wife Nancy ran in and he said to her, "Honey, I forgot to duck." Just before the surgery he look at the doctors standing there and said, "Please tell me that you're all Republicans." After he recovered from the anesthesia, he quipped, borrowing the old line from W.C. Fields, "All things considered I would rather be in Philadelphia."
He did three things: He defeated the Evil Empire, turned the nation's economy around, and gave America back her morale.
As president Bush said: He had the confidence that comes with conviction, the strength that comes with character, the grace that comes with humility, and the humor that comes with wisdom.
This is D-day. No one embodies more, the reasons why we fight for freedom. Let me close this memorial with Reagan's own words: I know that for America there will always be a bright dawn ahead, the best is yet to come.
8. Proclamation Appointing a National Fast Day
Illustration
William H. Seward
Washington, D.C. March 30, 1863
Senator James Harlan of Iowa, whose daughter later married President Lincoln's son Robert, introduced this Resolution in the Senate on March 2, 1863. The Resolution asked President Lincoln to proclaim a national day of prayer and fasting. The Resolution was adopted on March 3, and signed by Lincoln on March 30, one month before the fast day was observed.
By the President of the United States of America.
A Proclamation.
Whereas, the Senate of the United States, devoutly recognizing the Supreme Authority and just Government of Almighty God, in all the affairs of men and of nations, has, by a resolution, requested the President to designate and set apart a day for National prayer and humiliation.
And whereas it is the duty of nations as well as of men, to own their dependence upon the overruling power of God, to confess their sins and transgressions, in humble sorrow, yet with assured hope that genuine repentance will lead to mercy and pardon; and to recognize the sublime truth, announced in the Holy Scriptures and proven by all history, that those nations only are blessed whose God is the Lord.
And, insomuch as we know that, by His divine law, nations like individuals are subjected to punishments and chastisem*nts in this world, may we not justly fear that the awful calamity of civil war, which now desolates the land, may be but a punishment, inflicted upon us, for our presumptuous sins, to the needful end of our national reformation as a whole People? We have been the recipients of the choicest bounties of Heaven. We have been preserved, these many years, in peace and prosperity. We have grown in numbers, wealth and power, as no other nation has ever grown. But we have forgotten God. We have forgotten the gracious hand which preserved us in peace, and multiplied and enriched and strengthened us; and we have vainly imagined, in the deceitfulness of our hearts, that all these blessings were produced by some superior wisdom and virtue of our own. Intoxicated with unbroken success, we have become too self-sufficient to feel the necessity of redeeming and preserving grace, too proud to pray to the God that made us!
It behooves us then, to humble ourselves before the offended Power, to confess our national sins, and to pray for clemency and forgiveness.
Now, therefore, in compliance with the request, and fully concurring in the views of the Senate, I do, by this my proclamation, designate and set apart Thursday, the 30th. day of April, 1863, as a day of national humiliation, fasting and prayer. And I do hereby request all the People to abstain, on that day, from their ordinary secular pursuits, and to unite, at their several places of public worship and their respective homes, in keeping the day holy to the Lord, and devoted to the humble discharge of the religious duties proper to that solemn occasion.
All this being done, in sincerity and truth, let us then rest humbly in the hope authorized by the Divine teachings, that the united cry of the Nation will be heard on high, and answered with blessings, no less than the pardon of our national sins, and the restoration of our now divided and suffering Country, to its former happy condition of unity and peace.
In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed.
Done at the City of Washington, this thirtieth day of March, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and of the Independence of the United States the eighty seventh.
By the President: Abraham Lincoln
William H. Seward, Secretary of State.
9. Pastoral Prayer
Illustration
Brett Blair
D-Day for WWII was June 6, 1944 — the day on which the Battle of Normandy began — commencing the Western Allied effort to liberate mainland Europe from Nazi occupation during World War II. President Roosevelt composed a prayer and delivered it on the radio that evening. What follows is the full text of that address:
My Fellow Americans,
Last night, when I spoke with you about the fall of Rome, I knew at that moment that troops of the United States and our Allies were crossing the Channel in another and greater operation. It has come to pass with success thus far.
And so, in this poignant hour, I ask you to join with me in prayer:
Almighty God: Our sons, pride of our nation, this day have set upon a mighty endeavor, a struggle to preserve our Republic, our religion, and our civilization, and to set free a suffering humanity.
Lead them straight and true; give strength to their arms, stoutness to their hearts, steadfastness in their faith.
They will need Thy blessings. Their road will be long and hard. For the enemy is strong. He may hurl back our forces. Success may not come with rushing speed, but we shall return again and again; and we know that by Thy grace, and by the righteousness of our cause, our sons will triumph.
They will be sore tried, by night and by day, without rest until the victory is won. The darkness will be rent by noise and flame. Men's souls will be shaken with the violences of war.
For these men are lately drawn from the ways of peace. They fight not for the lust of conquest. They fight to end conquest. They fight to liberate. They fight to let justice arise, and tolerance and goodwill among all Thy people. They yearn but for the end of battle, for their return to the haven of home.
Some will never return. Embrace these, Father, and receive them, Thy heroic servants, into Thy kingdom.
And for us at home fathers, mothers, children, wives, sisters, and brothers of brave men overseas, whose thoughts and prayers are ever with them help us, Almighty God, to rededicate ourselves in renewed faith in Thee in this hour of great sacrifice.
Many people have urged that I call the nation into a single day of special prayer. But because the road is long and the desire is great, I ask that our people devote themselves in a continuance of prayer. As we rise to each new day, and again when each day is spent, let words of prayer be on our lips, invoking Thy help to our efforts.
Give us strength, too strength in our daily tasks, to redouble the contributions we make in the physical and the material support of our armed forces.
And let our hearts be stout, to wait out the long travail, to bear sorrows that may come, to impart our courage unto our sons wheresoever they may be.
And, O Lord, give us faith. Give us faith in Thee; faith in our sons; faith in each other; faith in our united crusade. Let not the keeness of our spirit ever be dulled. Let not the impacts of temporary events, of temporal matters of but fleeting moment let not these deter us in our unconquerable purpose.
With Thy blessing, we shall prevail over the unholy forces of our enemy. Help us to conquer the apostles of greed and racial arrogances. Lead us to the saving of our country, and with our sister nations into a world unity that will spell a sure peace a peace invulnerable to the schemings of unworthy men. And a peace that will let all of men live in freedom, reaping the just rewards of their honest toil.
Thy will be done, Almighty God.
Amen.
Note: We offer this as a possible pastoral prayer during times of war or conflict.We understand that current wars and WWII have many dissimilarities but there are at the same time similarities. Also we understand there are many differences of opinion regardingwar and conflict. So we will notattempted to contemporize or adapt the above prayer leaving that up toeach pastor. Or, you may simply wish to incorporate part or all into your sermon as an historical illustration.
10. What Can You Bear?
Illustration
Charles Ryrie
What is fruit? Actually the question ought to be phrased in the plural: What are fruits which a Christian can bear? The N.T. gives several answers to the question.
ONE, a developing Christian character is fruit. If the goal of the Christian life may be stated as Christlikeness, then surely every trait developed in us that reflects His character must be fruit that is very pleasing to Him. Paul describes the fruit of the Spirit in nine terms in Galatians 5:22-23, and Peter urges the development of seven accompaniments to faith in order that we might be fruitful (2 Peter 1:5-8). Two of these terms are common to both lists: love and self-control. The others are joy, peace, long-suffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, meekness, virtue, knowledge, endurance, piety, and brotherly love. To show these character traits is to bear fruit in one's life.
TWO, right character will result in right conduct, and as we live a life of good works we produce fruit (Colossians 1:10). This goes hand in hand with increasing in the knowledge of God, for as we learn what pleases Him, our fruitful works become more and more conformed to that knowledge. When Paul expressed how torn he was between the two possibilities of either dying and being with Christ or living on in this life, he said that living on would mean fruitful labor or work (Philippians 1:22). This phrase could mean that (1) his work itself was fruit, or (2) fruit would result from his work. In either case, his life and work were fruit. So may ours be.
THREE, those who come to Christ through our witness are fruit. Paul longed to go to Rome to have some fruit from his ministry there (Romans 1:13), and he characterized the conversion of the household of Stephanas as the first fruits of Achaia (I Corinthians 16:15).
FOUR, we may also bear fruit with our lips by giving praise to God and thankfully confessing His name (Hebrews 13:15). In other words, our lips bear fruit when we offer thankful acknowledgement to the name of God. And this is something we should do continually.
FIVE, we bear fruit when we give money. Paul designated the collection of money for the poorer saints in Jerusalem as fruit (Romans 15:28). Too, when he thanked the Philippians for their financial support of his ministry, he said that their act of giving brought fruit to their account (Philippians 4:17, KJV).
11. Law and Gospel
Illustration
Richard A. Jensen
Martin Luther asserted that the true theologian was the one who could rightly distinguish between law and gospel. When Lutherans, including this Lutheran, work at theology we almost always work within the parameters of law and gospel. Protestant theology in general talks about three uses of the law. The first use of law is usually termed the political or civil use of law. The second use of the law, the spiritual or theological use, is the law as a mirror in which we see our lives; the law as revealer of our sins. The third use of the law is law as a guide for Christian living. There is much debate even among Lutherans whether Luther taught the third use of the law. I do not believe that he did.
The function of the civil use of law is to help humankind create a civil society. Since all people bear the law within their being, all people can work to make society a more civil place to live. Preaching on the civil use of the law would call upon people to make use of their rational intelligence in making ethical decisions in life and in working toward a civil society. There is nothing particularly Christian about the civil use of the law. It need not, therefore, occupy too much of our preaching energy. The dialogical nature of the classroom is much better suited for the important discussions of the nature of the way we might best work for an improved civil order.
The theological or spiritual use of the law was for Luther the proper use of the law. The law, that is, reveals to us our sinfulness. "What then should we say? That the law is sin? By no means! Yet, if it had not been for the law, I would not have known sin .... Apart from the law sin lies dead. I was once alive apart from the law, but when the commandment came, sin revived and I died, and the very commandment that promised life proved to be death to me (Romans 7:7, 8-10)."
The law always kills! That was Luther's dictum about the spiritual use of the law. The law always leaves me helpless, consigned to wrath, doomed to death. This is the proper use of the law and is therefore the proper use of the law in preaching. To preach the law is to render people helpless in their relationship to God. The law kills us and leaves us dead in the eyes of God.
The third use of the law is the law as a guide to Christian living. For Calvin this was the proper use of the law. This marks a radical breach among protestants. Some protestants see the law as God's revealed law for life. Clearly such a law should be preached so that people know how to live! I have already stated my conviction that Martin Luther did not teach the third use of the law in this manner. He did not believe that God revealed the law either to Israel or to Christians as a guide to living! The most radical instance of this is Luther's comments on the law as given to Moses. Luther said, "I keep the commandments which Moses has given, not because Moses gave commandments, but because they have been implanted in me by nature, and Moses agrees exactly with nature etc."1
Luther believed that the law was natural to every person alive. That's the first use of the law! For Luther, therefore, the law does not need to be revealed. If that is the case then we will need spend little time preaching the law as a guide to life. Here, too, it may be better to deal with such ethical questions about life in discussion forums under the assumption that each person brings unique resources, resources given them by God the Creator, to the discussion.
Preach the law. Preach the costly law. Preach the law that costs sinners their life and brings them to the point that they cry out for a Savior.
12. Suffering and Repentance
Illustration
John Bergland
Trevor Beeson stood at the high altar of Westminster Abbey to celebrate the marriage of his daughter, Catharine, to Anthony, aged twenty-three. Nine months later he stood before the same altar for Anthony's funeral, who was killed when his car ran into a wall in East London. Four months later, Trevor returned to the altar beside the coffin of his friend and hero Earl Mountbatten, who died when his fishing boat was blown to pieces by Irish terrorist. Reflecting on the experience, he said he could not blame God for these senseless tragedies. He wrote:
I should find it impossible to believe in, and worship, a God who arranged for the great servants of the community to be blown up on their holidays and who deliberately turned a young man's car into a brick wall. . .. This is not the God of love whose ways are revealed in the Bible and supremely in the life of Jesus Christ.
Beeson found two insights that helped him to cope with his tragedy and to look beyond it: "The first is that, although God is not responsible for causing tragedy, he is not a detached observer of our suffering. On the contrary, he is immersed in it with us, sharing to the full our particular grief and pain. This is the fundamental significance of the cross."
Second, although we naturally ask, "Why did it happen?" Beeson discovered that the more important question is "What are we going to make of it?"; "Every tragedy contains within it the seeds of resurrection." This is, after all, the whole point of our pilgrimage through Lent, to Good Friday, and Easter morning.
Are those who experience innocent suffering worse than anyone else? Of course not. It can happen to any of us. But is there a connection between innocent suffering and human action? Of course there is, and unless we change our way of living, we may all experience the same suffering. What does Jesus offer us when we experience this kind of suffering? The power of God to hold us firm, to give us strength, and to see us through.
13. Listen for the Questions
Illustration
Joel D. Kline
The Scriptures include a significant number of life-and-death questions about meaning, purpose and value in life. Consider some of the questions posed by Scripture:
- What will it profit us if we gain the whole world but forfeit our life? (Matthew 16:26)
- Who do you say that I am? (Matthew 16:15)
- What are you looking for? (John 1:38)
- Who is my neighbor? (Like 10:29)
- What must I do to inherit eternal life? (Mark 10:17)
- Who can separate us from the love of Christ? (Romans 8:35)
- Are you able to drink the cup that I drink, or be baptized with the baptism that I am baptized with? (Mark 10:38)
- Which commandment is the first of all? (Mark 12:28)
- Where can I go from your Spirit? (Psalm 139:7).
- What is this new teaching, with authority? (Mark 1:27)
- Who is this about whom I hear such things? (Luke 9:9)
- What is truth? (John 18:38)
And this morning's Gospel lesson ends with the question, "Who then is this, that even the wind and the sea obey him?" Who is this Jesus, the one who speaks with a new level of authority, the one who is able to bring calm into the storms of life, the one who comes among us as prince of peace, suffering servant, fount of compassion and grace?
14. How Much Is That Preacher?
Illustration
Jean Shaw
How Much Is That Preacher?
Good morning, madam. May I help you?
Yes, please, I'd like to buy a minister.
For yourself or your church?
Oh, for my church, of course. I'm already married.
Uh, yes. Did you have a particular model in mind?
I've got a description from the Candidate Committee right here. We want a man about 30, well educated, with some experience. Good preacher and teacher. Balanced personality. Serious, but with a sense of humor. Efficient, but not rigid. Good health. Able to identify with all age groups. And, if possible, sings tenor.
Sings tenor?
We're short of tenors in the choir.
I see. Well, that's quite a list. How much money did you want to spend?
The committee says $22,000. $24,500 tops.
Hmmm. Well, perhaps we'd better start in the bargain basem*nt.
Tell me, how much is that model in the window?
You mean the one in the Pendleton plaid suit and the gray suede dune boots?
Yes, that one. He's a real dream.
That's our Princeton #467. Has a Ph.D. and AKC papers.
AKC?
American Koinonia Council. He sells for $38,000 plus.
Wow! That's too rich for our blood. What about that model over there?
Ah, yes. An exceptional buy. Faith #502. He's a little older than 30, but has excellent experience. Aggressive. Good heart. Has a libraryof solid sermons, two of which have been printed in Christian Leaders Magazine.
He's not too bad. Can you do something about his bald head? Mrs. Penner especially insists that our minister have some hair.
Madam, all our ministers come in a variety of hair styles. Keep him in mind. I want toshow you the Areopagus #222. Four years of varsity sports at BostonCollege. Plays football, basketball, volleyball, and Ping-Pong. Comes complete with sports equipment.
What a physique! He must weigh 200 pounds!
Yes, indeed. You get a lot for your money with this one. And think what he can do for your young people.
Great. But how is he at preaching?
I must admit he's not St. Peter. But you can't expect good sermons and a church-wide athletic program too!
I suppose not. Still...
Let me show you our Corinthian model#801. Now here's a preacher. All his sermons are superb well researched, copious anecdotes, and they always have three points. And he comes with a full set of the Religious Encyclopedia at no extra charge! You get the whole package for $32,300.
He's wearing awfully thick glasses.
For $420 more we put in contact lenses.
I don't know. He might study too much. We don't want a man who's in his office all the time.
Of course. How about this minister over here? Comes from a management background. Trained in business operations at Beatitude College. Adept with committees. Gets his work done by 11:30 every morning.
His tag says he's an IBM 400.
Madam, you have a discerning eye. IBM stands forInnovative Biblical Methods. This man will positively revitalize your church.
I'm not sure our church wants to be revitalized. Haven't you got something less revolutionary?
Well, would you like someone of the social worker type? We have this Ghetto #130.
The man with the beard? Good gracious, no. Mrs. Penner would never go for that.
How about our Empathy #41C? His forte is counseling. Very sympathetic. Patient. Good with people who have problems.
Everyone in our church has problems. But he might not get out and visit new people. We really need a man who does a lot of visitation. You see, all our people are very busy and...
Yes, yes, I understand. You want a minister who can do everything well.
That's it! Haven't you got somebody like that?
I'm thinking. In our back room we have a minister who was traded in last week. Excellent man, but he broke down after three years. If you don't mind a used model, we can sell him at a reduced price.
Well, we had hoped for someone brand-new. We just redecorated the sanctuary, and we wanted a new minister to go with it.
Of course. But with a little exterior work, and a fresh suit, this man will look like he just came out of the box. No one will ever know. Let me bring him out and you can look him over.
All right. Honestly, this minister shopping is exhausting. It's so hard to get your money's worth. Are there any specials being run or coupons I an use for our purchase?
Uh no. But if there's any dissatisfaction after six months we send a new congregation for the balance of the years. That usually takes care of most problems.
15. A House of Prayer
Illustration
John R. Brokhoff
Leslie Weatherhead in his book, A Private House Of Prayer, suggests that the structure of the content of prayer be likened to a house of seven rooms. Each room is a division of prayer. There may be some duplication with ACTSS which we just discussed.
The first room is for the affirmation of God's presence. If prayer is a conversation with God, obviously it is necessary for him to be present. When we pray, are we aware of his presence or like Moses do we see only a burning bush? In a hymn Tersteegen sings, "God himself is present; let us now adore him and with awe appear before him." What applies to worship, applies also to prayer. When we pray, we are talking to a real person, not to an idea, or ideal, or ideology, or a theological concept. In prayer we are not talking to ourselves or to the ceiling. In spirit God is there to hear our prayer. We need to realize this and pray accordingly.
The next room is for the thanksgiving and praise. We have been blessed beyond measure and therefore to thank and praise God is in order. Before we begin our prayer, we need to review how good God has been to us. If we are bereft of blessings, our greatest gift is Jesus who loved us enough to die for us.
Go to the next room for the confession of sins. Sin separates us from God. Sin erects an impenetrable curtain which prevents us from seeing God. The separation prevents our hearing the voice of God. We come out of a dirty world with the dirt of sin clinging to us. Before we can be presentable to a holy God we need spiritual cleansing. Thus, in prayer we confess our sins and plead for his mercy.
The fourth room is labelled "Reception of God's grace." We have confessed our sins and begged for mercy. What is God's response? It is grace in terms of pardon and acceptance. At this time in our prayers we remember his promises to be with us always, to forgive us, and to bless us with the Holy Spirit.
Now it is time to go to the room of petition. We have the opportunity to tell God about our personal needs in our own lives, or in our family, or in our work. But, we have petitions not only for ourselves, but others want and need our prayers in their behalf. This takes us to the sixth room of prayer. When we pray for others, it is called intercessory prayer. When his co-worker, Melanchthon, was sick, Luther prayed for him: "I besought the Almighty with great vigor ... quoting from Scripture all the promises I could remember, that prayers should be granted and said that he must grant my prayer, if I was henceforth to put faith in his promises."
The effectiveness of a friend's prayer on our behalf depends on the relationship of the pray-er to God. James wrote, "The prayer of the righteous is powerful and effective" (James 5:16). That is why we want a godly mother or a pious pastor to pray for us. Roman Catholics ask the saints and the Virgin Mary to pray for them. On the eve of a historic boxing match, a friend was visiting the champ in his hotel suite. During the conversation a murmuring feminine voice was heard. "That's my wife," the champ explained. "She's praying for me to win." "Oh, and I suppose you pray, too?" The champ replied, "My wife is more devout than I am. If God won't do it for her, He certainly won't do it for me."
The seventh room in the house of prayer is meditation. Some do not understand what meditation is and consequently do not know how to meditate. It is the act of reflecting, of silence, and listening to God. It calls for thinking about God and our relationship to him. It is a time to review past dealings with God. Then we reflect on how good God has been in those past dealings. After that, we remember God's promises to us: promises of peace, protection, and provision. Meditation can be summed up in three R's: review, reflect, and remember.
16. A New Perspective
Illustration
Staff
Several years ago, I heard the story of Larry Walters, a 33-year-old man who decided he wanted to see his neighborhood from a new perspective. He went down to the local army surplus store one morning and bought forty-five used weather balloons. That afternoon he strapped himself into a lawn chair, to which several of his friends tied the now helium-filled balloons. He took along a six-pack of beer, a peanut-butter-and-jelly sandwich, and a BB gun, figuring he could shoot the balloons one at a time when he was ready to land.
Walters, who assumed the balloons would lift him about 100 feet in the air, was caught off guard when the chair soared more than 11,000 feet into the sky smack into the middle of the air traffic pattern at Los Angeles International Airport. Too frightened to shoot any of the balloons, he stayed airborne for more than two hours, forcing the airport to shut down its runways for much of the afternoon, causing long delays in flights from across the country.
Soon after he was safely grounded and cited by the police, reporters asked him three questions:
"Where you scared?" "Yes."
"Would you do it again?" "No."
"Why did you do it?" "Because," he said, "you can't just sit there."
HERE'S HOW THE NEW YORK TIMES COVERED THE STORY AT THE TIME:
From The New York Times, 3 July 1982
Truck Driver Takes to Skies in Lawn Chair
LONG BEACH, Calif, July 2 (AP) A truck driver with 45 weather balloons rigged to a lawn chair took a 45-minute ride aloft to 16,000 feet today before he got cold, shot some balloons out and crashed into a power line, the police said. "I know it sounds strange, but it's true," Lieut. Rod Mickelson said after he stopped laughing. "The guy just filled up the balloons with helium, strapped on a parachute, grabbed a BB gun and took off."
The man was identified asLarryWalters,33years old, of North Hollywood. He was not injured.
The Federal Aviation Administration was not amused. Spotted by Airline Pilots, a regional safety inspector, Neal Savoy, said the flying lawn chair was spotted by Trans World Airlines and Delta Airlines jetliner pilots at 16,000 feet above sea level.
"We know he broke some part of the Federal Aviation Act, and as soon as we decide which part it is, some type of charge will be filed," Mr. Savoy said. "If he had a pilot's license, we'd suspend that. But he doesn't."
The police said Mr.Walterswent to a friend's house in San Pedro Thursday night, inflated 45 six-foot weather balloons and attached them to an aluminum lawn chair tethered to the ground. This morning, with half a dozen friends holding the tethers, he donned a parachute, strapped himself into the chair and had his friends let him up slowly.
Minutes later, he was calling for help over his citizens band radio. "This guy broke into our channel with a mayday," said Doug Dixon, a member of an Orange County citizens band radio club. "He said he had shot up like an elevator to 16,000 feet and was getting numb before he started shooting out some of the balloons."
Mr.Waltersthen lost his pistol overboard, and the chair drifted downward, controlled only by the gallon jugs of water attached to the sides as ballast. The ropes became entangled in a power line, briefly blacking out a small area in Long Beach. The chair dangled five feet above the ground, and Mr.Walterswas able to get down safely.
"Since I was 13 years old, I've dreamed of going up into the clear blue sky in a weather balloon," he said. "By the grace of God, I fulfilled my dream. But I wouldn't do this again for anything."
FOLLOW UP TO THE STORY OF LARRY WALTERS
LarryWalters; Soared to Fame on Lawn Chair
From The Los Angeles Times, 24 November 1993
by Myrna Oliver, Times Staff Writer
LarryWalters, who achieved dubious fame in 1982 when he piloted a lawn chair attached to helium balloons 16,000 feet above Long Beach, has committed suicide at the age of 44.
Waltersdied Oct. 6 after hiking to a remote spot in Angeles National Forest and shooting himself in the heart, his mother, Hazel Dunham, revealed Monday. She said relatives knew of no motive for the suicide. "It was something I had to do,"Walterstold The Times after his flight from San Pedro to Long Beach on July 2, 1982. "I had this dream for 20 years, and if I hadn't done it, I would have ended up in the funny farm."
Waltersrigged 42 weather balloons to an aluminum lawn chair, pumped them full of helium and had two friends untether the craft, which he had dubbed "Inspiration I."
He took along a large bottle of soda, a parachute and a portable CB radio to alert air traffic to his presence. He also took a camera but later admitted, "I was so amazed by the view I didn't even take one picture."
Walters, a North Hollywood truck driver with no pilot or balloon training, spent about two hours aloft and soared up to 16,000 feet three miles startling at least two airline pilots and causing one to radio the Federal Aviation Administration.
Shivering in the high altitude, he used a pellet gun to pop balloons to come back to earth. On the way down, his balloons draped over power lines, blacking out a Long Beach neighborhood for 20 minutes.
The stunt earnedWaltersa $1,500 fine from the FAA, the top prize from the Bonehead Club of Dallas, the altitude record for gas-filled clustered balloons (which could not be officially recorded because he was unlicensed and unsanctioned) and international admiration. He appeared on "The Tonight Show" and was flown to New York to be on "Late Night With David Letterman," which he later described as "the most fun I've ever had."
"I didn't think that by fulfilling my goal in life my dream that would create such a stir," he later told The Times, "and make people laugh."
Waltersabandoned his truck-driving job and went on the lecture circuit, remaining sporadically in demand at motivational seminars. But he said he never made much money from his innovative flight and was glad to keep his simple lifestyle.
He gave his "aircraft" the aluminum lawn chair to admiring neighborhood children after he landed, later regretting it.
In recent years,Waltershiked the San Gabriel Mountains and did volunteer work for the U.S. Forest Service.
"I love the peace and quiet," he told The Times in 1988. "Nature and I get along real well."
An Army veteran who served in Vietnam,Waltersnever married and had no children. He is survived by his mother and two sisters.
17. Screwtape and Wormwood
Illustration
Carla Thompson Powell
C.S. Lewis, great author and interpreter of the Christian faith, wrote a fictional series of correspondence between two devils entitled The Screwtape Letters. Screwtape is an older, more experienced devil who writes to the younger, naive Wormwood. Wormwood's job is to thwart the faith of a new Christian, to turn a particular Christian believer away from his faith in God. To accomplish his mission, Wormwood tries to make the young Christian realize the absurdity of his new faith. The devil's apprentice works hard to woo his "patient" away from the Christian camp, pointing out illogical teachings and hypocrisy in the church.
Screwtape and Wormwood speak of some of the absurdities of the Christian faith, as a way to draw the believer away from his belief. Screwtape points out that the followers of Jesus "have all been plainly told by Him that suffering is an essential part of what he calls redemption". Screwtape and Wormwood see Jesus' experience and call to suffering as an Achilles' heel in even the most solid faith of a believer. In the Screwtape Letters, Jesus' suffering is one of those absurdities of faith that the devils try to exploit in their attempts to draw people away from Christ. And these two fictional devils aren't the only ones who see a suffering God as confusing and scandalous.
18. A Maverick Son
Illustration
Larry Powell
Absalom was born in Hebron. His first recorded experience is the pathetic story of the rape of his sister, Tamar. Later, during a feast he masterminded the slaying of Amnon after which he escaped to the home of his grandfather at Geshur where he remained for three years. Absalom approached Joab to intercede for him with David in an effort to be reinstated in the royal family. Joab refused twice. Absalom then proceeded to set fire to Joab’s barley fields, forcing him to appear before David in order to escape the wrath of Absalom. In time, Absalom set about to undermine the people’s confidence in David by exaggerating the evils of the king’s court and presenting himself as the champion of the people. At the end of four years, confidence in David was sufficiently weakened and Absalom made bold to announce that at an appointed hour he would overthrow the throne of his father by force. David had no other recourse but to flee from Jerusalem. Eventually, the forces of father and son were to come up against each other in the forest of Ephraim, and the seasoned troops of David, under the leadership of Joab, Abishai, and Ittai the Hittite, utterly routed the forces of Absalom. As Absalom fled the battle upon his mule, his long hair became entangled in the thick branches of an oak tree, leaving him dangling helplessly in midair. Joab discovered him and slew him forthwith. Upon hearing the news, David cried out in one of the most pitiful laments in all the Scriptures: "O my son Absalom, my son Absalom! Would that I had died instead of you, O Absalom, my son, my son!" (2 Samuel 18:33).
There is a love which transcends all circ*mstances. It is not always within the scope of human rationality. The love of a parent for a child is a supreme reflection of such love. A parent may repeatedly scold a child for being irresponsible, lazy, undependable, and belligerent, but pity the poor person who dares to point out that child’s shortcomings in front of that child’s parents. Love does not always operate within the limits of rationality.
The tragic story of David and his maverick son is favorably compared to the Gospel in miniature. In it are shades of Adam’s folly, Israel’s rebellion against God, the Prodigal Son, and many other instances of flagrant misconduct. But in them all, the Bible’s theme of transcending love emerges most clearly. Not even the murder of God’s own son could violate the most profound, powerful force in all the universe - love. God, like David, grieves because of love. It was Luther who remarked, "If I was God and the world treated me the way it treats God, I would dash the wretched thing to pieces." A rational conclusion. However, there is a love which operates beyond rationality and we are thankful to God for it.
19. The Grace Side of the Cross
Illustration
Author Unknown
Dwight L. Moody was a great evangelist from Chicago. He went to England once and met a young man there that wanted to preach in his church. Moody agreed thinking that he would never see him again. To his dismay he received a letter that said the young man would be in his town shortly and wanted to take him up on the offer. Moody was going out of town that week and agreed to let the man preach, but he warned the deacons to be ready in case it was a real flop. When Moody returned from his business his wife informed him that revival had broken out in his church and that “he needed to be converted”. The young man preached every night on the same text, John 3:16, speaking of the love of God, from his heart. Moody went and he said he was indeed converted. He said “I used to preach the judgment side of the cross, now I focus on the grace side of the cross; I used to preach mainly on the wrath of God, now I preach he said on the love of God.” His life and ministry were forever changed.
20. Cleansed by the Light
Illustration
William G. Carter
Pastor William G. Carter tells the story about a boy named Tom, and aparticular night when he was a teenager. He and his friends were walking around the neighborhood. It was a warm night and very dark. Suddenly one of them saw a police car and shouted. They hadn’t done anything wrong, but they didn’t want to be seen, either. So they began to run. The police car saw them and watched them turn down an alley. Tom tripped and knocked over some trashcans. The police officers got out the car and began to go after them. One of the officers turned on a searchlight. Tom looked around for his friends, but didn’t see them. All he saw was that burning, searing searchlight, looking for him.
Tom jumped behind those trashcans, only to find his friends huddled there. With frantic energy they tried to hide, pulling trash over their heads and hoping to blend in. The spotlight fell on Tom. “Come out where we can see you,” said the voice behind the light. Tom stood up where he was, covered in garbage.
“What are you doing?” said the voice.
Tom stammered, “Nothing.”
The voice said, “I can’t hear you. What are you doing?”
Tom said, “Officer, I wasn’t doing anything wrong; I saw the light, I ran, I knocked over these garbage cans. I’m sorry about the disturbance.” The searchlight was beaming into his eyes, blinding him. He stood there in the light with nowhere to hide.
Then the voice said, “I think I recognize you. Don’t you live around the corner?”
“Yes,” he stammered. His heart was racing, and he thought to himself, “My life is ruined. If I don’t get arrested for disturbing the peace, something worse will happen: this officer is going to tell my parents.”
But then the voice behind the light said something unexpected. “Son, I’m not here to punish you; I’m here to protect you.” As he stood before that searchlight, Tom says he caught a glimpse of what it means to stand before Jesus, who is the Light of the World. There he was, fully exposed yet completely protected. He was fully revealed, yet free from unnecessary punishment. He stood hip-deep in garbage, yet cleaner than he had ever felt, somehow cleansed by a light that cast no shadow. In that moment, he saw something of what it means to stand in the presence of Jesus Christ, who is full of truth and full of grace.
21. We Don’t Play the Full Scale
Illustration
James W. Moore
One of the most famous composers had a rebellious son who used to come in late at night after his mother and father had gone to bed. And before going to his own room, this rebellious son would go to his father's piano and slowly, spitefully… and loudly would play a simple scale, all but the final note. He would play, "Do-Re-Mi-Fa-Sol-La-Ti…" and then he wouldn't strike that final "Do." Then leaving the scale unfinished, he would retire to his room.
Meanwhile, his father (great musician that he was) hearing the scale minus the final note,… would twist and turn and writhe on his bed, his mind unable to relax because the scale was not finished.
Finally, not able to stand it any longer, the father would crawl out of bed, stumble down the stairs and strike that final note of the scale. Only then could he relax and be at peace.
Now, that's an interesting parable because it reminds me of the way we so often treat God. We play around with some of the notes of faith, but we don't play the full scale…
- We forgive, but not completely.
- We love, but not completely.
- We serve, but not completely.
- We accept Christ, but not completely.
- We live the Christian life-style but not completely.
- We commit our lives to God, but not completely.
But then, even when we treat God shabbily, in his infinite patience and amazing grace, he continues to reach out andplay the last note andlove us.
22. Feeling the Suffering of Others
Illustration
David G. Rogne
Flannery O'Connor, the insightful Roman Catholic writer, lifted up the Christian dimension when she wrote: "You will have found Christ when you are concerned with other people's sufferings and not your own." The beginning of compassion involves becoming aware of the suffering of others.
But it is not enough simply to see the suffering of others, we need to feel it. It is possible to see suffering, but not to feel it. Dewitt Jones tells about a photographer who walked down the street one day and came upon a man who was choking. "What a picture," he thought. "This says it all: A man, alone, in need. What a message!" He fumbled for his camera and light meter until the poor fellow who was choking realized that help was not forthcoming. He grabbed the photographer's arm and gasped, "I'm turning blue!"
"That's all right," said the photographer, patting the fellow's hand, "I'm shooting color film." Just noticing suffering isn't enough.
23. Master of My Fate; Captain of My Soul
Illustration
Yearsago this country witnessed the execution of Timothy McVeigh, the man responsible for the worst act of domestic terrorism in U.S. history. A USA Today poll taken in April showed that 81 percent of Americans wanted McVeigh to be executed -- and 28 percent of that support was from people who are normally against the death penalty. No matter where you stand on the issue of capital punishment, this particular execution has forced itself on our consciousness. One thing that particularly caught my attention was that in lieu of any verbal comment, McVeigh gave a handwritten statement to the warden, quoting a section of the poem "Invictus," which is Latin for "unconquered." That poem, by 19th-century British poet William Ernest Henley (1849-1903), reads in part "I am the master of my fate: I am the captain of my soul." In case you haven't heard the poem, it goes like this:
Out of the night that covers me,
Black as the Pit from pole to pole,
I thank whatever gods may be
For my unconquerable soul.
In the fell clutch of circ*mstance
I have not winced nor cried aloud,
Under the bludgeonings of chance
My head is bloody, but unbowed.
Beyond this place of wrath and tears
Looms but the horror of the shade,
And yet the menace of the years
Finds, and shall find me, unafraid.
It matters not how strait the gate,
How charged with punishments the scroll,
I am the master of my fate:
I am the captain of my soul.
From what we've learned of McVeigh's attitudes and opinions, those lines probably come as close as any to a philosophy of life for him. Even to the point of ending the appeals process, McVeigh sought to be the master of his fate. But of course he's not. And in a letter written just a day before his death, he demonstrated how little he understood that. He wrote that if it turned out that there was an afterlife, he would "improvise, adapt and overcome." As if he or any of us will have the ability to affect our environment after arrival in the world to come! Once we are at the judgment seat of God, none of us is any longer master of our fate.
It's worth noting that when the poet Henley wrote those words, he was not thinking of setting his own standard of morality, as McVeigh appears to have done. Far from claiming the right to be judge, jury and executioner of others, Henley was vocalizing his attitude toward the hurts and setbacks of life. At the age of 12, he developed tubercular arthritis, and his left foot was amputated in his teens. He had other health problems later on, and actually wrote "Invictus" while once again in the hospital, too ill to work. He was, as his poem says, "bloody, but unbowed." For Henley, "Invictus" was an expression of courage in the face of life's difficulties, not a license to kill.
McVeigh sounds an awful lot like the attitude of the legion of demons. The demons knew, once they saw Jesus’ boat land near their home town, that their days were numbered. So, they start bartering with Jesus. What are you doing here? What do you want with us? Please, don’t torture us. (There’s a hypocritical request if I ever heard one. They had been torturing this poor man for years and now they are begging for mercy.) Finally, knowing that they would have to leave their host they asked to be sent into a heard of nearby pigs. When this happens the pigs become disoriented and throw themselves along with the demons over the cliff and into the sea where they drown. McVeigh perhaps felt he could master his own fate even the fate that befalls us in the afterlife. Perhaps he will find what he is looking for but the demons did not; they bartered, got what they wanted, and lost!
The fullsermon can be found on Sermons.com by doing a Scripture search for Luke 12, the sermon titled, "God, The Enemy."
24. Courage in the Storm
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
Do you remember Tom Dooley, that young doctor who organized hospitals, raised money, and literally poured out his life in the service of the afflicted peoples of Southeast Asia? Here was a man whose deep relationship with God motivated him to abandon a soft career in the United States for a desperately difficult ministry overseas. In the end that relationship enabled him to die victoriously at the age of thirty-four. Here is the letter which on December 1, 1960, he wrote to the president of Notre Dame, his alma mater:
Dear Father Hesburgh: They've got me down. Flat on the back, with plaster, sand bags, and hot water bottles. I've contrived a way of pumping the bed up a bit so that, with a long reach, I can get to my typewriter....Two things prompt this note to you. The first is that whenever my cancer acts up a bit, and it is certainly "acting up" now, I turn inward. Less do I think of my hospitals around the world, or of 94 doctors, fund-raisers, and the like. More do I think of one Divine Doctor and my personal fund of grace. It has become pretty definite that the cancer has spread to the lumbar vertebra, accounting for all the back problems over the last two months. I have monstrous phantoms; all men do. And inside and outside the wind blows. But when the time comes, like now, then the storm around me does not matter. The winds within me do not matter. Nothing human or earthly can touch me. A peace gathers in my heart. What seems unpossessable, I can possess. What seems unfathomable, I can fathom. What is unutterable, I can utter. Because I can pray. I can communicate. How do people endure anything on earth if they cannot have God?
25. Do You Want To Be More Spiritual?
Illustration
Clement E. Lewis
In his letter to the Philippians, Paul advised, "Let the same mind be in you that was in Christ Jesus." To the Romans he wrote, "To set the mind on the Spirit is life and peace." In order to be more spiritual, the mind needs to be fixed on abiding by the rules of spirituality. Our attitude toward God and Jesus Christ in spiritual matters, and in secular conduct has much to do with how we qualify spiritually. Our devotional, intentionally creative and conscientious participation help to enrich our spiritual manifestations.
The first requirement is to overcome the feelings of distance and strangeness in our relation to God. There are those who feel that God is aloof, or far from them, in spite of our being taught that God is everywhere. Someone asked, "When you feel far from God, who moved?" We need a working and conversational relationship with God, at least daily. Someone also asked, "Do you treat God like your doctor, only consulting with him when you have a problem?"
Learn to use prayer as an instrument of faith, rather than as a salve for conscience, or a plea in emergencies. We should, instead of praying out of duty, talk with God out of love for him and for the life he has given us. Be willing to be yourself with God, facing the truth as it really is, letting him guide you in knowledge and understanding.
Take stock of yourself, your interests and goals in life, and talk them over with God. You may do well to share them also with a good friend who has a deep reverence for life and for God. Ask yourself if what you think and feel would have the endorsem*nt of Jesus. Are you about to do what you sincerely believe is right under the circ*mstance and proper at the time? Are you putting off what you know ought to be considered because it may require more of you than you want to give of yourself, time, or substance? It is hard to feel spiritual comfort, or to be satisfied within yourself if these matters cannot be rightly dealt with.
We need to take our emotions and our reasoning both into account. Sometimes we are torn between the two. While matters of the heart are necessary to enjoy fulfillment, the mind must be in agreement, or an inner argument can ensue, causing regret for a long time. Spiritual joy dies when conflicts are not properly resolved. Remember, life is very personal, and resolution of feelings and problems are essential to spiritual growth.
Most people discover that when they have done the right thing, and have done their best in the interest of spiritual development and religious growth, inner peace comes to their lives. It is then that they come to full appreciation of the words, "To be spiritually minded is life and peace." Total commitment to God through Christ is the best means of finding that life and peace.
When we are truly spiritual persons we often find that we have considerable influence on others. These lines may well serve as our prayer.
May every soul that touches mine,
Be it the slightest contact, get therefrom some good,
Some little grace, one kindly thought,
One aspiration yet unfelt, one bit of courage
For the darkening sky, one gleam of faith
To brave the thickening ills of life;
One glimpse of brighter sky beyond the gathering mist,
to make this life worthwhile
And heaven a surer heritage. Amen.
A Closing Hymn: "Spirit Of The Living God"
26. A Number of God's Blessings
Illustration
F.E. Marsh
F.E. Marsh has enumerated some of God's blessings:
- An acceptance that can never be questioned. (Ephesians 1:6).
- An inheritance that can never be lost (I Peter 1:3-5).
- A deliverance that can never be excelled (2 Corinthians l:10).
- A grace that can never be limited (2 Corinthians 12:9).
- A hope that can never be disappointed. (Hebrews 6:18, 19).
- A bounty that can never be withdrawn. (I Colossians 3:21-23).
- A joy that need never be diminished (John 15:11).
- A nearness to God that can never be reversed (Ephesians 2:13).
- A peace that can never be disturbed (John 14:27).
- A righteousness that can never be tarnished (2 Corinthians 5:21).
- A salvation that can never be canceled (Hebrews 5:9).
27. Gifts That Keep Giving
Illustration
Charles Swindoll
Some gifts you can give this Christmas are beyond monetary value:
- Mend a quarrel, dismiss suspicion, tell someone, "I love you."
- Give something away anonymously.
- Forgive someone who has treated you wrong.
- Turn away wrath with a soft answer.
- Visit someone in a nursing home.
- Apologize if you were wrong.
- Be especially kind to someone with whom you work.
- Give as God gave to you in Christ, without obligation, or announcement, or reservation, or hypocrisy.
28. It's a Big Ocean to be Lost In
Illustration
Brett Blair
H.H. Staton in his book, "A Guide To the Parables of Jesus" tells the story of having been on an ocean liner headed to the Middle East.
Nine hundred miles out to sea a sail was sighted on the horizon. As the liner drew closer, the passengers saw that the boat - a small sloop flying a Turkish flag - had run up a distress signal and other flags asking for its position at sea. Through a faulty chronometer or immature navigation the small vessel had become lost. For nearly an hour the liner circled the little boat, giving its crew correct latitude and longitude. Naturally there was a great deal of interest in all the proceeding among the passengers of the liner. A 12 year-old-boy remarked aloud to himself - "It's a big ocean to be lost in."
It is a big universe to be lost in too. And we do get lost - we get mixed up and turned around. We despair, we make mistakes, we do evil to each other. We deserve the wrath of God and that is what the Pharisees who criticized Jesus maintained. But Jesus understood God more. He knew God as a Shepherd in search of the one lost sheep. He knew God as a woman searching in the dark, in the crevasses, for that valuable coin. In the end it was Jesus' view of God which prevailed and not his critics.
29. A 12 DAY RUNNING START
Illustration
G. William Genszler
The twelve days of Christmas could prove to be a practice session for learning the art of CHRISTMAS LIVING. Keep the pear tree and the partridge and start giving love and understanding and forgiveness and peace to one another. Give, not grudgingly, but with the joyful abandonment of a child at PLAY. Who knows, by the grace of God that suddenly floods your hearts, you might become addicted to the idea and be "hooked" on a Life Style that means "Fun Forever." Jesus said, "I have come that you might have Life - and that you might have it more abundantly." This can mean a "New Year REVOLUTION for YOU."
30. His Grace IS Sufficient
Illustration
J. Oswald Sanders
When he was a young married man, Prebendary Webb-Peploe, a noted British preacher, took his little family to the seaside for a holiday. One of his little children was drowned. He returned to the city devastated with grief. In his distress he knelt at the desk in his study and poured out his grief before God. He pleaded with God to make His grace sufficient for him in his deep need. But no comfort came. The sense of desolation was still as acute as ever.
Through his tears, he looked up at the familiar text on the wall above the mantelpiece, but now with a new interest. The text was: “My grace IS sufficient for thee” (2 Corinthians 12:9). For the first time he noticed that the IS was printed in large letters. Light dawned. “Lord, here have I been asking you to make your grace sufficient for me in my loss, and all the time you have been telling me that it IS sufficient. I now appropriate for myself your sufficient grace.” His act of faith was immediately rewarded. Although the sense of loss was no less, the compensating comfort of God flooded his heart and he had peace.
31. Break A Leg
Illustration
Michael P. Green
Please see the note below this illustration.
A woman visiting in Switzerland came to a sheepfold on one of her daily walks. Venturing in, she saw the shepherd seated on the ground with his flock around him. Nearby, on a pile of straw lay a single sheep, which seemed to be suffering. Looking closely, the woman saw that its leg was broken.
Her sympathy went out to the suffering sheep, and she looked up inquiringly to the shepherd as she asked how it happened. “I broke it myself,” said the shepherd sadly and then explained. “Of all the sheep in my flock, this was the most wayward. It would not obey my voice and would not follow when I was leading the flock. On more than one occasion, it wandered to the edge of a perilous cliff. And not only was it disobedient itself, but it was leading other sheep astray.
“Based on my experience with this kind of sheep, I knew I had no choice, so I broke its leg. The next day I took food and it tried to bite me. After letting it lie alone for a couple of days, I went back and it not only eagerly took the food, but licked my hand and showed every sign of submission and affection.
“And now, let me say this. When this sheep is well, it will be the model sheep of my entire flock. No sheep will hear my voice so quickly nor follow so closely. Instead of leading the others away, it will be an example of devotion and obedience. In short, a complete change will come into the life of this wayward sheep. It will have learned obedience through its sufferings.”
Many times it is the same in human experience. Through our suffering, God may be seeking to teach us obedience and reliance on his care.
Note: There is no evidence that this was a practice among shepherds. See the following page for more information.
32. God's Treasure
Illustration
John A. Stroman
Tom Long asks the question in his book Shepherds and Bathrobes: "Have you ever noticed where God placed his treasure on this earth?" The treasure is not gold, but gospel. Not silver, but good news. Not hard, cold cash, but grace, love, and peace. He points out that God could have left it with the politicians, those who are responsible for collecting taxes, building schools, and passing laws, but God didn't. God could have left this treasure with Zechariah, the high priest, but his unbelief took him out of the picture. Tom Long states that God left the treasure in the least likely of places: in the love, care, and nurture of a first century peasant woman chosen as the "handmaiden of the Lord." God's treasure was left with the most powerless figure in the ancient world. Doesn't that tell you something about God's grace in today's world?
33. Rejoicing in Suffering
Illustration
Michael P. Green
It is clear from Scripture that “rejoicing in suffering” is not simply stoicism. It is not simply a
- grin-and-bear-it attitude of tough-it-out-and-see-how-much-you-can-take,
- or just-hang-in-there-until-it’s-over-and-don’t-let-anything-get-you-down,
- or keep-a-stiff-upper-lip.
Many people feel that if they do this, they are obeying God and “rejoicing in suffering.” But they are not. If your suffering does not in some way open youup to a deeper meaning of life then suffering willonly teach you bitterness.
34. Even the Great Believers Doubt
Illustration
Mickey Anders
Most Christians think the great believers of the faith never doubted. They know about the faith of the famous Christian leaders, but not about their inner struggles. One Christian leader at the turn of the century wrote in his autobiography: "My religious faith remains in possession of the field only after prolonged civil war with my naturally skeptical mind." The Scottish reformer, John Knox, wrote of a time when his soul knew "anger, wrath and indignation, which is concei6ved against God, calling all his promises in doubt." Read the diary of Increase Mather, one of the great Puritan leaders, and find this entry: "Greatly molested with temptations to atheism."
We sing Martin Luther's great hymn, "A mighty fortress is our God," and we suppose he never questioned his faith, but he once wrote, "For more than a week, Christ was wholly lost. I was shaken by desperation and blasphemy against God."
In today's Scripture passage we find that kind of faith-struggle even among one of the twelve disciples, Thomas. Here's a man who seems to me to be a disciple for a time like this because we live in an age that questions everything. Perhaps we can learn something from Thomas about how to handle our questions and doubts.
35. Waves of Worry
Illustration
Adrian Dieleman
A submarine was being tested and had to remain submerged for many hours. When it returned to the harbor, the captain was asked, "How did the terrible storm last night affect you?" The officer looked at him in surprise and exclaimed, "Storm? We didn't even know there was one!" The sub had been so far beneath the surface that it had reached the area known to sailors as "the cushion of the sea." Although the ocean may be whipped into huge waves by high winds, in this area, the waters are never stirred.
This, I believe, is a perfect picture of the peace that comes from Christ's Spirit. The waves of worry, of fear, of heartbreak, cannot touch those resting in Christ. Sheltered by His grace and encouraged by His Spirit, the believer is given the perfect tranquility that only Christ can provide.
36. Lay Down Your Entitlements
Illustration
Timothy Owings
Our greatest Advent challenge seems to be the need to face the truth about ourselves. Both Isaiah and John tell us some very unflattering things about who we are and what we are capable of doing. Truth be told, all of us some of the time and some of us all of the time are in radical denial about the situation of our planet, our nation, and our lives. For example, like the people who heard John, we can claim an entitlement that keeps us from becoming the prepared and faithful people God calls us to be. The folks in John's crowd were tempted to say, "We have Abraham as our father." Meaning what? Meaning we can coast through life as the entitled ones refusing to face the demands that being Abraham's children require of us.
We do the same thing. Put your own entitlement in the blank. "We are Americans." Or, "We are Baptists." Or, "We have a rich worship tradition in our Church," Or, "We have _______." For God to prepare us for God's coming in Jesus Christ, we must lay down our entitlements, our selfish "rights," anything that may indicate a sense of ownership, and confess that God has the gift of God's Kingdom, and we cannot receive the gift until we first admit we deeply and honestly need it. Justice, righteousness, peace, and dozens of other gifts all come into our needy lives, not from our own bankrupt professions or clichéd confessions. Advent is about receiving God's judgment on all our self-protecting behaviors so we can finally, at last, receive God's gift of uncommon grace.
37. A Belief That Never Changes
Illustration
David C. Gibbs, Jr.
Difference between a conviction and a preference, according to the U.S. Supreme Court. A preference is a very strong belief, held with great strength. You can give your entire life in a full-time way to the service of the preference, and can also give your entire material wealth in the name of the belief. You can also energetically proselytize others to your preference. You can also want to teach this belief to your children, and the Supreme court may still rule that it is a preference. A preference is a strong belief, but a belief that you will change under the right circ*mstances. Circ*mstances such as:
- peer pressure; if your beliefs are such that other people stand with you before you will stand, your beliefs are preferences, not convictions,
- family pressure,
- lawsuits,
- jail,
- threat of death; would you die for your beliefs?
A conviction is a belief that you will not change. Why? A man believes that his God requires it of him. Preferences aren't protected by the constitution. Convictions are. A conviction is not something that you discover, it is something that you purpose in your heart. Convictions on the inside will always show up on the outside, in a person's lifestyle. To violate a conviction would be a sin.
38. DEFUSE YOUR FUSE
Illustration
John H. Krahn
Not all murderers are behind bars. Even churches are full of them. We all know that those who kill bodies are subject to punishment by law. Jesus tells us that it is just as much an act of murder to lash out at someone with our tongue as with our hands. A tongue can destroy lives and reputations as effectively as a tornado can wreck a town. While destruction is accomplished in minutes, restoration often takes years.
Without mincing words, Jesus says that a lashing tongue can lead us to everlasting hell. Control your anger! You have no right to dump it on anyone ... whether subtly or blatantly. Every human being that casts a shadow upon this earth is a child of God ... included in the category of the human race are also parents, brothers, sisters, wives, husbands, children, and neighbors. The blood of Jesus Christ ran freely for each of these people. We have no right to destroy someone whom God has declared precious by his Son’s sacrifice.
Throughout the Bible we are warned to control our temper. Only in instances of injustice are we permitted to show anger. We can be angry over one person’s unjustness to another. The Greek word behind the term for anger in the New Testament is the word orgay. Taken from the realm of nature it suggests a superabundant swelling of sap and vigor, thrusting and upsurging in nature. It connotes an impulsiveness found in all of us.
As impulsive as anger might be, it can be controlled. Saint Paul says to the church at Ephesus, "Let all bitterness, and wrath, and anger, and clamour, and evil speaking, be put away from you, with all malice." God does not command us to achieve that which is impossible to achieve. To control our anger, we must first believe that it can be controlled and then seek God’s help in controlling it. We can control anger through the powerful presence of Jesus Christ in our lives. Christ can help us defuse our fuse before we blow. He can even change us from a beast into a teddy bear. We must first want the change to take place, then seek it, and before long, with God’s help, we’ll have it.
39. A Diminishing Benediction
Illustration
William Goodin
A seminary president told me this story: When candidates are ordained into the ministry, they have one thing to do in the service. At the conclusion of the worship, the candidate stands, walks up the steps into the chancel, turns and gives the benediction. That is their first official act as an ordained pastor. One candidate stood, approached the steps, and ascended. But on the first step, he stepped inside the hem of his robe. Now, the obvious thing to do would be to step back out of the robe, but he didn’t. The poor candidate kept climbing up the steps - all the time walking up the inside of his robe. Each step made him smaller as he was forced to "duck walk" up the inside of his own robe. Finally, at the top of the steps, looking like a dwarf in a white tent, he turned around. His robe could not turn with him, since he was standing inside it. Turning placed the left arm of his robe right in the center of his chest and the right arm between his shoulders. All he could move was his wrist, which he waved as he gave the benediction. When he was done, two ushers came forward, picked him up by the arms, and carried him off like a piece of furniture.
Nomatter how small we might be the benediction of God is world transforming:Love. Grace. Peace. That is our message. That is our calling. Make it yours no matter how small you might feel.
40. Broken: Laughing Through the Pain
Illustration
Warren W. Wiersbe
Will Rogers was known for his laughter, but he also knew how to weep. One day he was entertaining at the Milton H. Berry Institute in Los Angeles, a hospital that specialized in rehabilitating polio victims and people with broken backs and other extreme physical handicaps. Of course, Rogers had everybody laughing, even patients in really bad condition; but then he suddenly left the platform and went to the rest room. Milton Berry followed him to give him a towel; and when he opened the door, he saw Will Rogers leaning against the wall, sobbing like a child. He closed the door, and in a few minutes, Rogers appeared back on the platform, as jovial as before.
If you want to learn what a person is really like, ask three questions: What makes him laugh? What makes him angry? What makes him weep? These are fairly good tests of character that are especially appropriate for Christian leaders. I hear people saying, "We need angry leaders today!" or "The time has come to practice militant Christianity!" Perhaps, but "the wrath of man does not produce the righteousness of God."
What we need today is not anger but anguish, the kind of anguish that Moses displayed when he broke the two tablets of the law and then climbed the mountain to intercede for his people, or that Jesus displayed when He cleansed the temple and then wept over the city. The difference between anger and anguish is a broken heart. It's easy to get angry, especially at somebody else's sins; but it's not easy to look at sin, our own included, and weep over it.
41. Letting God Bless You
Illustration
Joel D. Kline
In his book Letting God Bless You John Killinger concludes with the challenge:
Permit God to bless you. Don't look around you and think how hard life is. Look around and see how filled with mystery and goodness it is. See how wonderful the world looks when you know God is at work redeeming it and setting up the anti-structures, so that humility and purity and compassion and longing for justice and peace will all be fulfilled and rewarded in the eternal scheme of things.
Give thanks to God for the richness of existence.
Then look around to see who you can share it with.
That will make you even richer.
If you will learn to live this way every day, you will always have a song in your heart and the path before you will be lined with flowers. Joy will spring up inside you like a fountain, and you will lie down to sleep at night with peace in your soul. And you will say, "Blessed be the name of our God forever and ever, who calls us to a new rule where righteousness will be the order of the day forever!"
This Advent season, my friends, let us make the critical choice of permitting God to bless us and to fill us with a new sense of hope and purposeful living. Let us live in the assurance that the present darkness is not our final destination, that there is indeed much more yet to come. Along the way we will begin to experience joy springing up within us like a fountain. Thanks be to God, who blesses us with love and grace beyond measure.
42. How Are You?
Illustration
Dr. Joseph Leroy Dodds
A common greeting of these days is, "How are you?" The stereotype reply is, "Fine, and how are you?" I frequently give this reply to my friends. Theybe dismayed and bored if I tried to tell them the truth, because this jalopy which I call my body is getting worse and worse, and my friends recognize it and make mental note, "He is slipping fast." No one comments on description of "Fine," the obvious and colossal lie that it is.
This jalopy is getting into bad condition. The steering gear is so worn and wobbly that I have to use a cane to keep it from running off the road. The headlights are so dim that they shineonly about a half or a third as much as they used to. The horn is a mere squawk. I only get about a tenth of the speed out of it that it gave a few years ago. And as for climbing hills, or even gentler slopes, the less said the better. It is clear that it is going to have to be junked one of these days. But the real person who lives inside this jalopy is a different story. God is much more real and his truth shines more brightly.
The companionship of Christ is more constant through His Holy Spirit, and He holds out a hope for a new model, after this jalopy is junked.
This, I think, is what Paul had in mind when he spoke of the reward that God, the righteous Judge, would give him on that day. I think it is also what he was writing to the Philippians about his own body which was in a hazardous state: "I rejoice and I intend to rejoice. I hope all of you will rejoice with me." Paul labeled his new model spiritual and eternal, as compared with our present model, physical and decaying. This then is the lively hope that I can have. I know I do not deserve a new model, and if God, the righteous Judge, determines that I should not have it, that is all right, too. In any case, Righteous Judge is His middle name, sandwiched between His first and last names, both of which are LOVE. So, I am fine, thank you. How are you?
43. Drawn Not by Wrath but by Love
Illustration
The author Ron Lee Dunn tells the story of two altar boys. One was born in 1892 in Eastern Europe. The other was born just three years later in a small town in Illinois. Though they lived very separate lives in very different parts of the world, these two altar boys had almost identical experiences. Each boy was given the opportunity to assist his parish priest in the service of communion. While handling the communion cup, they both accidentally spilled some of the wine on the carpet by the altar. There the similarity in their story ends. The priest in the Eastern European church, seeing the purple stain, slapped the altar boy across the face and shouted, "Clumsy oaf! Leave the altar." The little boy grew up to become an atheist and a communist. His name was Marshal Josip Tito - dictator of Yugoslavia for 37 years. The priest in the church in Illinois upon seeing the stain near the altar, knelt down beside the boy and looked him tenderly in the eyes and said, "It's alright son. You'll do better next time. You'll be a fine priest for God someday." That little boy grew up to become the much-loved Bishop Fulton J. Sheen.
There is the gospel! We are drawn, not by wrath and condemnation, but by love. God is love. God draws us by love. That's what Jesus meant when he said, "No one can come to me unless drawn by the Father who sent me."
44. The First Fruits of the Spirit
Illustration
Jane Shepherd
Do we have the first fruits of the Spirit? Can someone coming into our door to visit for the first time recognize these traits in us?
Love: do we love each other, and do we love those who are different from us? Do we love and welcome visitors, no matter who they are? Do we try to make their acquaintance, so that we can love them? Do we put their comfort above our own?
Goodness: Peter tells usto support our faith with goodness, and goodness with knowledge. Our salvation is the result of God's goodness. Likewise, other persons should benefit as a result of our goodness. Our mission work should clearly show our faith in God's goodness.
Peace: Is there peace between us, and peace within us? Can someone tell by being with us, that we have a peaceful soul, based upon God as the source of all that we have?
Faithfulness: Is our steadfastness to Christ's church based upon an enduring loyalty that is true to God, no matter how we feel about the pastor, the district, the conference, the women's group, the organist, or any other facet of our organization?
Gentleness: Do we exhibit care and protection for all of God's creation? Are we gentle with the environment, with each other, and with ourselves?
Joy: Do we look joyous to the outsider? Do we feel joy inside? True joy in being a child of God should be able to override all unhappiness and bitterness we feel, and should be reflected in our total involvement in our worship.
Kindness: This action word can be directed outwardly or inwardly. Do we show compassion and generosity to others and ourselves?
Patience: How many of us are willing to let others (and ourselves) come along at each one's own pace? How many of us can forgive seven times seventy?
Self-Control: This is one of the hardest, and may include all of the others. This requires an inner discipline only manageable with the grace of God's Spirit to sustain us in our trials. Do we constantly pray for help in this area, and constantly call on God to help us? If not, we should.
45. Going Beyond Duty: The Second Mile
Illustration
James Merritt
Shortly after the battles ended the American Revolution, but before the peace had been negotiated, George Washington was with his troops in Newburgh, New York. But they began to grow very restless because they hadn't been paid. Washington had begged the Continental Congress to do what they said they would do and pay the soldiers, but they refused.
Well, some of the officers began to organize a rebellion. They talked about marching on Philadelphia, which was at that time the seat of the reigning national government, and overthrowing that government and letting the army rule the nation.
With the fate of America in the balance, George Washington made a surprise appearance before these officers. After praising them for their service and thanking them for their sacrifice, he pulled from his pocket a copy of a speech that he wished to read. But then he fumbled with a paper and finally reached for a set of reading glasses-glasses those men had never seen him wear before. Washington made this simple statement: "I have already grown grey in the service of my country, and now I am going blind."
Historian Richard Norton Smith wrote: "Instantly rebellion melted into tears. It was a galvanizing moment, and the rebellion..." and there rebellion was put down because they had seen before them a second miler. Becoming a Christian is one thing; being a Christian is another one. Every chance you get for the glory of Jesus, for the goodness of others, and because of the grace of God, go the second mile.
46. The Mother Hen's Sacrifice
Illustration
Donald Grey Barnhouse
A farmer saw that a fire had ignited in his wheat fields, and was being blown toward his barns by the wind. To save the stored grain there, he lit a backfire, in hopes that it would impede the progress of the other flames. After both fires had subsided—and the barns had been saved—the farmer walked out through the smoldering ashes of the nearby fields. There he discovered the dead body of one of his hens, which had been caught in the blaze. Sadly, he turned over her black, charred body with his foot—and out from underneath ran four baby chicks. Her sacrifice saved her young ones. Such is the work of Christ on the cross, a place where the love of God dealt with the justice of God, where God’s mercy matched God’s wrath. Our Lord’s sacrifice has saved us.
47. THE CHRISTMAS MESSAGE: I LOVE YOU
Illustration
John H. Krahn
Little in life can match the beauty of Christmas Eve - the holy night of celebration. Beauty in abundance surrounds us for a few fleeting hours. Each of us treasures these moments, savoring every tradition. Somehow we love our children a little bit more this night. Our wife, how lovely she looks; our hearts feel special love for her, for him. If we had the power to stop time’s endless march - suspend it momentarily - most of us would do it Christmas Eve. For this is the night when peace pervades our hearts, as hands extend to greet friends and arms reach out to embrace family. How wonderfully good we all feel. We love and are loved. We forgive and are forgiven. We give only to receive in return.
Years ago, many years ago, there was a Christmas much unlike our own. The world didn’t stop for the first Christmas - hardly anyone even noticed. The scent of fresh baked bread and chocolate chip cookies were not the smells of the first Christmas. Straw replaced tinsel and garland. Live animals replaced Handgeschnitzed Holzfigurn and Hummels. A virgin laboring at birth, a carpenter lending an unsteady hand. Animals annoyed at intruders. Angels preparing themselves to startle shepherds. God’s wayward creation about to be invaded by the cosmic Christ. Coming into the humblest surroundings to a no-place city called Bethlehem. This was the first Christmas. How strange ... how wonderfully and beautifully strange.
The first Christmas can only be described as unusual and surprising that the God of a million heavens and a million earths should grace a manger in Bethlehem. Swaddling cloths upon the back of a King, of a God - on the back of the one, true, and only God. Where was the finery one might expect? Nowhere, for it was to the poor he came, to those who were troubled, those who were not completely self-sufficient, those who knew they were not good enough to make heaven by themselves. He came for all humankind, not only that first holy night but for every night of every year and into the present - here, right now.
The Lord Jesus Christ is present with us. He speaks to us once again the message of Christmas as he says to each of us, "I love you. I want to be close to you every day of your lives. Please be wise and invite me in. There is no one who is so perfect that he cannot welcome a fuller participation of my indwelling. There are some who have yet to welcome my powerful presence and, unfortunately, we are only occasional guests of one another and may be strangers in eternity. And to you I say, come, do not live another day without my abundant presence." Now may my Father bless and keep each one of you, and may your voices and lives continuously sing the angelic chorus, "Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men."
48. Pastoral Prayer for First Sunday of Lent
Illustration
Joel D. Kline
Gracious God, how blessed we are to live and serve as a community of Your people. Gifted with the beauty of creation surrounding us, lead us into significant relationships that nurture and challenge us, as we experience the promise of life, and are grateful.
Lead us now, O God, as we seek, in this season of Lent, to journey with our eyes fixed on Jesus.
Lead us in righteousness, that our journey might be a journey in which we embrace Christ's ways of compassion and justice, grace and mercy, hope and right living.
Lead us, God, in peace, as we seek to keep our eyes fixed on Jesus.
Fill us with a peace that passes all human understanding, a peace the world cannot give to us, neither can it take away.
But, holy God, let us never be satisfied with personal peace alone. Lead us into paths of peacemaking and reconciliation. And God, we pray that You might soften the hearts of those world leaders who are far more inclined to wage war than to seek peace.
God, where there is brokenness, form us into instruments of forgiveness.
Where there is despair, make of us channels of Your hope.
Where there is division, may we be empowered to bring healing and wholeness.
Where darkness abounds, grant us courage to walk in the light, our eyes fixed on Jesus, the light of the world.
God of healing and compassion,
We hold before You now those in special need of Your healing touch …
God, make us mindful of those among us this day who silently hold hurts and brokenness within them. Teach us to look into one another's eyes and hearts.
We pray for those experiencing pain in their significant relationships, those who are yearning for new beginnings in life. We pray, O God, for young people facing untold pressures and challenges, and for older persons seeking to come to terms with limitations and losses. Whatever our life situations, O God, lead us in paths of right living, our eyes fixed on Jesus Christ our Lord, through whom we pray. Amen.
49. Holiness Shining through Humanity
Illustration
Scott Hoezee
Frederick Buechner muses on the Transfiguration this way: In the Transfigurationit was the holiness of Jesusshining through his humanness, his face so afire with it that they were almost blinded. Even with us something like that happens once in a while. The face of a man walking his child in the park, of a woman picking peas in the garden, of sometimes even the unlikeliest person listening to a concert, say, or standing barefoot in the sand watching the waves roll in, or just having a beer at a Saturday baseball game in July. Every once and so often, something so touching, so incandescent, so alive transfigures the human face that it's almost beyond bearing" (Whistling in the Dark,Harper San Francisco, 1988, p. 108).
In one sense Buechner here is maybe rendering the actual Transfiguration of Jesus a bit too mundane, a bit too much like what could happen to us on most any given afternoon while riding the bus or walking down a sidewalk. But on the other hand, he may be on to something, and I would add to his musings this one: Even on all kinds of days when the disciples and Jesus were by no means having a mountaintop experience and when dazzling garments whiter than white were nowhere to be seen, even then when Jesus smiled kindly at lepers, looked pained to see a "sinner" being shunned by the Temple establishment, or looked winsome after telling a hurting prostitute to go in peace because her sins were forgiven, there was sense in which the disciples were seeing the face of the divine transfigured in also those ordinary moments. They were seeing hints of glory. They were seeing true God of true God, vividly and surprisingly and, yes, dazzlingly on display in God's One and Only Son, full of grace and truth.
50. Back to School Good Behavior
Illustration
Mark Richardson
Teachers, students, and school personnel across the country are getting ready for another academic year. Lutheran pastor Larry Henning tells a humorous story about when he was in the fourth grade. He writes:
Our teacher, Mrs. Cannon, would periodically leave the room and say, I'll be back in a few minutes. Just work quietly at your desks on your math worksheets. Now, my friends and I tried hard to figure out just when Mrs. Cannon was coming back. We would take turns going to the door to see if she was indeed making her return. Why this obsession about the exact timing of her return? Because in her absence, we were throwing chalkboard erasers around the room and didn't want to get caught by her sudden and unexpected reappearance. Mrs. Cannon was a good teacher who was nice most of the time, but her wrath in response to willful disobedience was an awesome thing to behold. ... Meanwhile, our classmate Elaine never worried about just when Mrs. Cannon might reappear. Why? Because Elaine would be at her desk the whole time faithfully doing her math faithfully doing what Mrs. Cannon asked her to do. Whenever Mrs. Cannon would return, she would find Elaine faithfully at work. Elaine was so good! (I wonder whatever happened to Elaine.)
The purpose of sharing this story a story that some of us may have variations on is to suggest an analogy to the gospel reading. In the story, Elaine is doing the work her teacher has set before her. So whenever her teacher returns, she is busily engaged in her work. She has no need to fear the return of her teacher, unlike the boys in the story. In our lives, the Rabbi – the Teacher from Nazareth has given us work to do as well. We are to live as those who belong to God. We are to love as those who belong to God. If we are faithfully engaged in such work for the sake of God's realm, then we need not fear those times when Jesus enters our lives, when Jesus returns in the stranger, or alien, or outcast. We will be ready, for our hearts are turned toward God, and we have been faithfully doing the work of love that we are given.
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